Nanocrystalline materials are three-dimensional ultrafine, polycrystalline microstructures. They give rise to interesting and useful chemical and physical-size effects. This book describes the development of a method of synthesizing chemical vapor for the production of nanocrystalline ceramic powders. The development of the microstructure during sintering is studied and the influence of the synthesis parameters on the structure and properties of the nanocrystalline ceramics from the atomic to the microstructural level is investigated. The emerging unified view, from powder synthesis and ceramic processing to structural characterization and determination of properties, provides a detailed understanding of the materials and enables better quality control of the end products.

Photonic crystals are a very hot topic in photonics. The basics, fabrication, application and new theoretical developments in the field of photonic crystals are presented in a comprehensive way, together with a survey of the advanced state-of-the-art report.

The present set of lectures and tutorial reviews deals with various topical aspects related to instabilities of interfacial processes and driven flows from both the theoretical and experimental point of views. New research has been spurred by demands for many applications in material sciences (melting, solidification, electro deposition), biomedical engineering and processing in microgravity environments. This book is intended as both a modern source of reference for researchers in the field as well as an introduction to postgraduate students and non-specialists from related areas.

Every reader interested in understanding the important problems in physics and astrophysics and their historic development over the past 60 years will enjoy this book immensely. The philosophy, history and the individual views of famous scientists of the 20th century known personally to the author, make this book fascinating for non-physicists, too.

In this monograph, nonequilibrium statistical mechanics is developed by means of ensemble methods on the basis of the Boltzmann equation, the generic Boltzmann equations for classical and quantum dilute gases, and a generalised Boltzmann equation for dense simple fluids. The theories are developed in forms parallel with the equilibrium Gibbs ensemble theory in a way fully consistent with the laws of thermodynamics. The generalised hydrodynamics equations are the integral part of the theory and describe the evolution of macroscopic processes in accordance with the laws of thermodynamics of systems far removed from equilibrium. Audience: This book will be of interest to researchers in the fields of statistical mechanics, condensed matter physics, gas dynamics, fluid dynamics, rheology, irreversible thermodynamics and nonequilibrium phenomena.

Up-to-date introduction to the field with the focus on the critical areas of novel thin films such as sol gel synthesis of membrane, ferroelectric thin films and devices, functional nanostructured thin films, micromechanical analysis of fiber-reinforced composites, and novel applications. An important aspect of the book lies in its wide coverage of practical applications.

This book demonstrates the usefulness of tools from statistical mechanics for biology. It includes the new tendencies in topics like membranes, vesicles, microtubules, molecular motors, DNA, protein folding, phase transitions in biological systems, evolution, population dynamics, neural systems and biological oscillators, with special emphasis on the importance of statistical mechanics in their development. The book addresses researchers and graduate students.

This book is especially addressed to young researchers in theoretical physics with a basic background in Field Theory and Condensed Matter Physics. The topics were chosen so as to offer the largest possible overlap between the two expertises, selecting a few key problems in Condensed Matter Theory which have been recently revisited within a field-theoretic approach. The presentation of the material is aimed not only at providing the reader with an overview of this exciting frontier area of modern theoretical physics, but also at elucidating most of the tools needed for a technical comprehen sion of the many papers appearing in current issues of physics journals and, hopefully, to enable the reader to tackle research problems in this area of physics. This makes the material a live creature: while not pretending it to be exhaustive, it is tutorial enough to be useful to young researchers as a starting point in anyone of the topics covered in the book."

In recent years several improvements have been made in the manufacturing of resistive, superconducting and hybrid mag nets. Condensed matter physicists are nowadays doing ex periments in steady magnetic fields of up to 30 Tesla. But the field homogenity {/B}, required in a volume of the order of a 3 few cm is usually several orders of magnitude less severe than the one which is needed for high resolution NMR. Over the last 30 years, with each generation of new high resolution NMR spectrometers, from 100 MHz up to 600 MHz, taking advan tage of the increase in sensitivity and resolution, new areas of research have been opened in chemistry, physical chemistry and biochemistry. The generation of the 20 Tesla supercon ducting magnets is coming. Thus one may seriously start to consider high resolution NMR at 1 GHz. The purpose of this volume is to examine some of the advantages which can be obtained at such high frequencies and some of the problems we shall be facing. An important aspect of NMR at high field which is not presented in this volume concerns the design of the magnet. The building of a superconducting magnet, producing a field 10 3 higher than 20 T, with a field homogeneity IlB/B 10-, in a cm volume still remains today in 1990 a major challenge. Grenoble, France J. B. Robert Guest-Editor Professor J. B. Robert Service National des Champs Intenses B. P."

While the discovery that heating oxygen-rich silicon to around 450 C produces electrically active defects dates back to 1954, the details of the processes by which the donors and other defects are generated remain obscure today. The fact that there is only one oxygen atom in about ten thousand silicon atoms means that it is difficult to devise experiments to see what happens during the early stages of oxygen precipitation when complexes of two, three or four oxygen atoms are formed. But important new findings are emerging from the careful monitoring of the changes in IR lattice absorption spectra over long time periods, observation of the growth of new bands that are correlated with electronic IR data, and high resolution ENDOR studies. Better samples are also becoming available for study, and great advances have been made in modelling techniques. The emphasis of the present book is on the fundamental issues of oxygen diffusion, the properties of small oxygen aggregates, and the effects of H, N, and C on oxygen precipitation. With extended reviews by G.D. Watkins, R.C. Newman, J.L. Lindstrom, C.A.J. Amerlaan, M. Spaeth, V. Merkevich, J. Weber, R. Jones, P. Deak, S.K. Estreicher, S.T. Pantelides, M. Suezawa, U. Gosele, K. Sumino, B. Pajot and E.C. Lightowlers in addition to 26 contributed papers, the proceedings contain the latest results on the vibrational spectroscopy of thermal donors, the enhanced diffusion of oxygen dimers, magnetic resonance, theoretical modelling, and the influence of H on oxygen diffusion. Audience: All researchers working in the field of silicon technology, especially those dealing with defects and defect control in Czochralski silicon."

Dry granular materials, such as sand, sugar and powders, can be poured into a container like a liquid and can also form a pile, resisting gravity like a solid, which is why they can be regarded as a fourth state of matter, neither solid nor liquid. This book focuses on defining the physics of dry granular media in a systematic way, providing a collection of articles written by recognised experts. The physics of this field is new and full of challenges, but many questions (such as kinetic theories, plasticity, continuum and discrete modelling) also require the strong participation of mechanical and chemical engineers, soil mechanists, geologists and astrophysicists. The book gathers into a single volume the relevant concepts from all these disciplines, enabling the reader to gain a rapid understanding of the foundations, as well as the open questions, of the physics of granular materials. The contributors have been chosen particularly for their ability to explain new concepts, making the book attractive to students or researchers contemplating a foray into the field. The breadth of the treatment, on the other hand, makes the book a useful reference for scientists who are already experienced in the subject.

Considering the high level of our knowledge concerning covalent bond formation in the organic chemistry of molecules, our understanding of the principles involved in organic solid design is almost in its infancy. While chemists today are able to synthesize organic molecules of very high complexity using sophisticated methods of preparation, they lack general approaches enabling them to reliably predict organic crystalline or solid structures from molecular descriptors - no matter how simple they are. On the other hand, nearly all the organic matter surrounding us is not in the single-molecule state but aggregated and condensed to form liquid or solid molecular assemblages and structural arrays giving rise to the appearances and properties of organic compounds we usually observe. Obviously, the electrical, optical or magnetic properties of solid organic materials that are important requirements for future technologies and high-tech applications, as well as the stability and solubility behavior of a medicament depend on the structure of the molecule and the intramolecular forces, but even more decisively on the intermolecular forces, i. e. the packing structure of the molecules to which a general approach is lacking. This situation concerned ]. Maddox some years ago to such a degree that he described it as "one of the continuing scandals in the physical sciences" [see (1998) Nature 335:201; see also Ball, P. (1996) Nature 381:648]. The problem of predicting organic solid and crystal structures is very dif- cult.

Supercritical fluids which are neither gas nor liquid, but can be compressed gradually from low to high density, are gaining increasing importance as tunable solvents and reaction media in the chemical process industry. By adjusting the pressure, or more strictly the density, the properties of these fluids are customized and manipulated for the particular process at hand, be it a physical transformation, such as separation or solvation, or a chemical transformation, such as a reaction or reactive extraction. Supercritical fluids, however, differ from both gases and liquids in many respects. In order to properly understand and describe their properties, it is necessary to know the implications of their nearness to criticality, to be aware of the complex types of phase separation (including solid phases) that occur when the components of the fluid mixture are very different from each other, and to develop theories that can cope with the large differences in molecular size and shape of the supercritical solvent and the solutes that are present.

The interaction of an electron beam with a solid target has been studied since the early part of the past century. Since 1960, the electron-solid interaction hasbecomethesubjectofanumberofinvestigators'workowingtoitsfun- mental role in scanning electron microscopy, in electron-probe microanalysis, in Auger electron spectroscopy, in electron-beam lithography and in radiation damage. The interaction of an electron beam with a solid target has often been investigated theoretically by using the Monte Carlo method, a nume- cal procedure involving random numbers that is able to solve mathematical problems. This method is very useful for the study of electron penetration in matter. The probabilistic laws of the interaction of an individual electron with the atoms constituting the target are well known. Consequently, it is possible to compute the macroscopic characteristics of interaction processes by simulating a large number of real trajectories, and then averaging them. The aim of this book is to study the probabilistic laws of the interaction of individual electrons with atoms (elastic and inelastic cross-sections); to - vestigate selected aspects of electron interaction with matter (backscattering coe?cients for bulk targets, absorption, backscattering and transmission for both supported and unsupported thin ?lms, implantation pro?les, seconda- electron emission, and so on); and to introduce the Monte Carlo method and its applications to compute the macroscopic characteristics of the inter- tion processes mentioned above. The book compares theory, computational simulations and experimental data in order to o?er a more global vision.

Solid-State Imaging with Charge-Coupled Devices covers the complete imaging chain: from the CCD's fundamentals to the applications. The book is divided into four main parts: the first deals with the basics of the charge-coupled devices in general. The second explains the imaging concepts in close relation to the classical television application. Part three goes into detail on new developments in the solid-state imaging world (light sensitivity, noise, device architectures), and part four rounds off the discussion with a variety of applications and the imager technology. The book is a reference work intended for all who deal with one or more aspects of solid- state imaging: the educational, scientific and industrial world. Graduates, undergraduates, engineers and technicians interested in the physics of solid-state imagers will find the answers to their imaging questions. Since each chapter concludes with a short section Worth Memorizing', reading this short summary allows readers to continue their reading without missing the main message from the previous section.

Amphiphiles, monolayers and micelles R. Angelico, G. Palazzo, U. Olsson, Structural investigation of lecithin/cyclohexane solutions ......... 1 L. Ambrosone, A. Ceglie: L. Cantu, M. Corti, E. Del Favero, A calorimetric study of thermal hysteresis effects in ganglioside E. Muller, A. Raudino. S. Sonnino: micelles ............................................... 5 T. Diirrschmidt, H. Hoffmann, Electrorheological effects in lecithin organogels with water Y.A. Shchipunov: and glycerol ........................................... 11 P. Dynarowicz-Lqtka, Langmuir monolayers formed by a novel group of aromatic J. Czapkiewicz, K. Kita, P. Milart, amphiphiles ............................................ 15 E. Broclawik: N. JalSenjak, N. Judai, I. tefanik, Dynamics of vesicles from symmetrical double-chain S. Haas, D. Teiak: alkylbenzenesulphonates ......................... J. Miiiones Jr., J. Miiiones, A study of the behaviour of mixed monolayers 0. Conde, R. Seoane, of amphotericin B and dipalmitoyl phosphatidic acid P. Dynarowicz-Lqtka: based on hysteresis experiments ............................ 23 I. Rey Gomez-Serranillos, A study of the stability of amphotericin B monolayers ........... 29 J. Miiiones Jr., R. Seoane, 0. Conde. M. Casas: I. Slindez, A. Surirez, Pressure-area isotherms: the behaviour of cyclosporin /pyrene- A. Gil Gonzalez, I. Aristegui, labelled phospholipid systems .............................. 34 J. Miiiones Trillo: K. Sattler, H. Hoffmann: A novel glycol silicate and its interaction with surfactant 40 for the synthesis of mesoporous silicate ......................

The future of information technology requires ultra-high speed processing and large data storage capacity. Since the electronics technology using semi-cond- tors and inorganic materials is about to reach its limits, much current research is focused on utilizing much faster photons than electrons, namely photonics. To achieve any significant effect on the actual use of the science of photonics, dev- opments of more efficient photonics materials, better optical property evaluations, manufacture of devices for system applications, etc. are the subjects which need to be explored. In particular, the development of photonics materials stands in the forefront of research as this constitutes the most pertinent factor with regard to the development of ultra-high speed and large capacity information processing. In this respect, there has been continuous research on photo-responsive materials through molecular structure design and architecture and the results so far are very promising as functions and performances are beginning to realize their high expectations. The two special volumes "Polymers for Photonics Applications"give authori- tive and critical reviews on up-to-date activities in various fields of photonic po- mers including their promising applications. Seven articles have been contributed by internationally recognized and they deal with, polymers for second- and thi- order nonlinear optics, quadratic parametric interactions in polymer waveguides, electroluminescent polymers as light sources, photoreflective polymers for ho- graphic information storage, and highly efficient two-photon absorbing organics and polymers.

Flux quantization experiments indicate that the carriers, Cooper pairs (pairons), in the supercurrent have charge magnitude 2e, and that they move independently. Josephson interference in a Superconducting Quantum Int- ference Device (SQUID) shows that the centers of masses (CM) of pairons move as bosons with a linear dispersion relation. Based on this evidence we develop a theory of superconductivity in conventional and mate- als from a unified point of view. Following Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer (BCS) we regard the phonon exchange attraction as the cause of superc- ductivity. For cuprate superconductors, however, we take account of both optical- and acoustic-phonon exchange. BCS started with a Hamiltonian containing "electron" and "hole" kinetic energies and a pairing interaction with the phonon variables eliminated. These "electrons" and "holes" were introduced formally in terms of a free-electron model, which we consider unsatisfactory. We define "electrons" and "holes" in terms of the cur- tures of the Fermi surface. "Electrons" (1) and "holes" (2) are different and so they are assigned with different effective masses: Blatt, Schafroth and Butler proposed to explain superconductivity in terms of a Bose-Einstein Condensation (BEC) of electron pairs, each having mass M and a size. The system of free massive bosons, having a quadratic dispersion relation: and moving in three dimensions (3D) undergoes a BEC transition at where is the pair density.

Shock-induced dynamic fracture of solids is of practical importance in many areas of materials science, chemical physics, engineering, and geophysics. This book, by an international roster of authors, comprises a systematic account of the current state of research in the field, integrating the large amount of work done in the former Soviet Union with the work done in the West.
Topics covered include: Wave propagation, experimental techniques and measurements, spallation of materials of different classes (metals, ceramics, glasses, polymers), constitutive models of fracture processes, and computer simulations.

This laboratory handbook offers clear guidelines and tips for the practical everyday application of viscosimetry, as well as supplying a comprehensive companion for the interpretation of viscosimetric data from simple to complex polymer solutions.

This two-volume work provides a comprehensive study of the statistical mechanics of lattice models. It introduces readers to the main topics and the theory of phase transitions, building on a firm mathematical and physical basis. Volume 1 contains an account of mean-field and cluster variation methods successfully used in many applications in solid-state physics and theoretical chemistry, as well as an account of exact results for the Ising and six-vertex models and those derivable by transformation methods.

M. C. Roco and W.S. Bainbridge In the early decades of the 21st century, concentrated efforts can unify science based on the unity of nature, thereby advancing the combination of nanotechnology, biotechnology, information technology, and new technologies based in cognitive science. With proper attention to ethical issues and societal needs, converging in human abilities, societal technologies could achieve a tremendous improvement outcomes, the nation's productivity, and the quality of life. This is a broad, cross cutting, emerging and timely opportunity of interest to individuals, society and humanity in the long term. The phrase "convergent technologies" refers to the synergistic combination of four major "NBIC" (nano-bio-info-cogno) provinces of science and technology, each of which is currently progressing at a rapid rate: (a) nanoscience and nanotechnology; (b) biotechnology and biomedicine, including genetic engineering; (c) information technology, including advanced computing and communications; (d) cognitive science, including cognitive neuroscience. Timely and Broad Opportunity. Convergence of diverse technologies is based on material unity at the nanoscale and on technology integration from that scale."

Topics include the theory of atom tunneling reactions, conclusive evidence and controlling factors for such reactions in solid hydrogen, tunneling dislocation motion, coherent tunneling diffusion, the production of interstellar molecules and semiconductors using tunneling reactions, the effect of atom tunneling on molecular structure and crystalline structure, the suppression of mutation and cancer by an atom tunneling reaction of vitamin C, and atom tunneling reactions of vitamin E and of enzymes.

It is widely recognized that an understanding of the optical pro perties of matter will give a great deal of important information re levant to the fundamental physical properties. This is especially true in semiconductor physics for which, due to the intrinsic low screening of these materials, the optical response is quite rich. Their spectra reflect indeed as well electronic as spin or phonon transitions. This is also in the semiconductor field that artificial structures have been recently developed, showing for the first time specific physical properties related to the low dimentionality of the electronic and vi bronic properties: with this respect the quantum and fractional quan tum Hall effects are among the most well known aspects. The associated reduced screening is also a clear manifestation of these aspects and as such favors new optical properties or at least significantly enhan ces some of them. For all these reasons, it appeared necessary to try to review in a global way what the optical investigation has brought today about the understanding of the physics of semiconductors. This volume collects the papers presented at the NATO Advanced study Inst i tut e on "Optical Properties of Semiconductors" held at the Ettore Majorana Centre, Erice, Sicily on March 9th to 20th, 1992. This school brought together 70 scientists active in research related to optical properties of semiconductors. There were 12 lecturers who pro vided the main contributions ."

The classical view on polymer crystallization basically focused on the expla- tion of a few macroscopically observable parameters like the thickness of the resulting lamellar structure and the corresponding growth rates. However, the emerging paradigm for the description of chain crystals is too simple and cannot account for the complex non-equilibrium processes responsible for structure f- mation on various levels, ranging from the nanometer up to the millimeter scale. This complexity detected by several novel experimental results led to a renewed interest in this "old" topic of polymer crystallization. These new ?ndings c- cern the early stages of the crystallization process, crystal formation in con?ned geometries like ultra-thin ?lms and the competition between (micro)phase s- aration and crystallization in copolymers and blends. In particular, high spatial resolution techniques such as atomic force microscopy provided deeper insight into the molecular organization of crystallizable polymers. Computer simu- tions based on microscopic processes were used to improve our understanding of how polymer crystals are nucleated and how they grow. New ideas emerged about possible multistage pathways which are followed during the formation of polymer lamellae. The importance and the consequences of the non-equilibrium character of polymer crystals got signi?cantly more attention. Links and ana- gies to growth phenomena and pattern formation in general are being developed. However, these ideas are still subject of intensive and controversial discussions.