Vacuum apparatus is widely used in research and industrial establishments for providing and monitoring the working environments required for the operation of many kinds of scientific instruments and process plant. The vacuum conditions needed range from the relatively coarse vacuum requirements in applications covering diverse fields such as food packaging, dentistry (investment casting), vacuum forming, vacuum metallur gical processes, vacuum impregnation, molecular distillation, vacuum drying and freeze drying etc. to the other extreme involving the highest possible vacuum as in particle accelerators, space technology -both in simulation and outer space, and research studies of atomically clean surfaces and pure condensed metal films. Vacua commence with the rough vacuum region, i.e. from atmosphere to 100 Pa * passing 6 through medium vacuum of 100 Pa to 0.1 Pa and high vacuum of 0.1 Pa to 1 J.lPa (10- Pa) until ultra high vacuum is reached below 1 J.lPa to the limit of measurable pressure about 12 I pPa (10- Pa)."

This book deals with the underlying theory and practical aspects of pressure gauges that are at present in general use. Because of the ever-increasing demands to provide a wider range of sophisticated and reliable vacuum equipment a good understanding of these instruments is of vital importance to all workers in the research and industrial sectors. Of the gauges considered only the mechanical types are absolute, in the sense that they measure pressure directly as a force upon a liquid column or a solid surface. Under ideal conditions it is possible to calculate their sensitiv ities, which are the same for all gases and vapours. The recent developments in the viscous or molecular damping gauges indicate that these may also be considered absolute. Other gauges are indirect in that they involve the measurement of some secondary phenomenon which is pressure-dependent and therefore these gauges can only be used for measurement after calibration against an absolute standard. The radiometer or Knudsen type gauge has been excluded from the text since these are now only of historic interest. Also no mention is made of the integration techniques involving surface changes (such as work function) although these could have application under very special circumstances. The McLeod gauge is dealt with in some detail, for even though this gauge has few practical applications, it is the most sensitive absolute gauge available and has value as a reference standard."

In 1979, a conference on x-ray microscopy was organized by the New York Academy of Sciences, and in 1983, the Second Interna tional Symposium on X-ray Imaging was organized by the Akademie der Wissenschaften in Gottingen, Federal Republic of Germany. This volume contains the contributions to the symposium "X-ray Microscopy '86," held in Taipei, Taiwan, the Republic of China in August 1986. This is the first volume which intends to provide up-to date information on x-ray imaging to biologists, therefore, emphasis was given to specimen preparation techniques and image interpreta tion. Specimen preparation represents a major part of every microscopy work, therefore, it should be strongly emphasized in this emerging field of x-ray microscopy. Theoretically, x-ray microscopy offers the potential for the study of unfixed, hydrated biological ma terials. Since very few biological system can be directly observed without specimen preparation, we would like to emphasize that new information on biological specimens can only be obtained if the speci men is properly prepared. In the past decade, many of the published x-ray images were obtained from poorly prepared biological speci mens, mainly air-dried materials. Therefore, one of the goals of this conference is to bring the importance of specimen preparation to the attention of x-ray microscopy community. X-ray microscopy can be subdivided into several major areas. They are the classic x-ray projection microscope, x-ray contact imag ing (microradiography) and the more recent x-ray scanning micro scope, x-ray photoelectron microscope and x-ray imaging microscope."

The combination of atomic force microscopy with ultrasonic methods allows the nearfield detection of acoustic signals. The nondestructive characterization and nanoscale quantitative mapping of surface adhesion and stiffness or friction is possible. The aim of this book is to provide a comprehensive review of different scanning probe acoustic techniques, including AFAM, UAFM, SNFUH, UFM, SMM and torsional tapping modes. Basic theoretical explanations are given to understand not only the probe dynamics but also the dynamics of tip surface contacts. Calibration and enhancement are discussed to better define the performance of the techniques, which are also compared with other classical techniques such as nanoindentation or surface acoustic wave. Different application fields are described, including biological surfaces, polymers and thin films.

Million-copy bestselling author of The Elements, Molecules, and Reactions Theodore Gray applies his trademark mix of engaging stories, real-time experiments, and stunning photography to the inner workings of machines, big and small, revealing the extraordinary science, beauty, and rich history of everyday things. Theodore Gray has become a household name among fans, both young and old, of popular science and mechanics. He's an incorrigible tinkerer with a constant curiosity for how things work. Gray's readers love how he always brings the perfect combination of know-how, humour and daring-do to every project or demonstration, be it scientific or mechanical. In How Things Work he explores the mechanical underpinnings of dozens of types of machines and mechanisms, from the cotton gin to the wristwatch to an industrial loom. Filled with stunning original photographs in Gray's inimitable style, How Things Work is a must-have exploration of stuff - large and small - for any builder, maker or lover of mechanical things.

This book describes for the first time how Monte Carlo modeling methods can be applied to electron microscopy and microanalysis. Computer programs for two basic types of Monte Carlo simulation are developed from physical models of the electron scattering process--a single scattering program capable of high accuracy but requiring long computation times, and a plural scattering program which is less accurate but much more rapid. Optimized for use on personal computers, the programs provide a real time graphical display of the interaction. The programs are then used as the starting point for the development of programs aimed at studying particular effects in the electron microscope, including backscattering, secondary electron production, EBIC and cathodo-luminescence imaging, and X-ray microanalysis. The computer code is given in a fully annotated format so that it may be readily modified for specific problems. Throughout, the author includes numerous examples of how such applications can be used. Students and professionals using electron microscopes will want to read this important addition to the literature.

Recent developments in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) have resulted in a wealth of new applications for cell and molecular biology, as well as related biological disciplines. It is now possible to analyze macromolecular complexes within their three-dimensional cellular microenvironment in near native states at high resolution, and to identify specific molecules and their structural and molecular interactions. New approaches include cryo-SEM applications and environmental SEM (ESEM), staining techniques and processing applications combining embedding and resin-extraction for imaging with high resolution SEM, and advances in immuno-labeling. New developments include helium ion microscopy, automated block-face imaging combined with serial sectioning inside an SEM chamber, and Focused Ion Beam Milling (FIB) combined with block-face SEM. With chapters written by experts, this guide gives an overview of SEM and sample processing for SEM, and highlights several advances in cell and molecular biology that greatly benefited from using conventional, cryo, immuno, and high-resolution SEM.

The first insights into the site and mechanisms of RNA process- ing to functional mRNA in eukaryotic cells came from the group of Georgiev (Lukanidin et al. 1972) who demonstrated the association of rapidly labelled, heterogeneous nuclear RNA (hnRNA) with a limited number of specific proteins in the cell nucleus. These "informofers", i. e. packaged precursors of mRNA (pre-mRNA or hnRNA), are in a form presumably amenable to the action of nucleases. With the availability of better analytical techniques, the considerable heterogeneity of hnRNA associated proteins was revealed (Niessing and Sekeris 1970), suggesting a role that was more composite, rather than solely structural, for these proteins. Later studies investigated the RNA binding behavior of these proteins (Schenkel et al. 1988, 1989; Wilk et al. 1983). For a long time, the small nuclear RNAs, well characterized with respect to primary structure (reviewed by Reddy and Busch 1983), were naively ignored regarding their function. Several events then set the stage for a detailed study of the intricate mechanisms of the splicing process and other steps involved in hnRNA processing: (1) The demonstration of a second class of nuclear ribonucleoproteins (RNPs), composed of small nuclear RNAs (snRNAs) and another characteristic group ofheterogene- ous proteins (Lerner et al. 1980; Guialis et al. 1983); (2) the detec- tion of the association of snRNPs with hnRNPs by virtue of base pairing between hnRNA and snRNA (Flytzanis et al.

The standard protocols for the purification of all known cytoskeleton proteins are presented in this manual. Proteins are listed alphabetically and each protocol follows a common format. Thus, the manual provides a quick and easy reference to all relevant procedures for cytoskeleton protein purification.
The isolation procedure for each protein is shown in a clear flowchart, while the source of the protein, equipment and material needed, a list of suppliers, standard references, accession No. of sequences as well as further relevant facts and practical tips are given on a separate page.

In modern scanning electron microscopy, sample surface preparation is of key importance, just as it is in transmission electron microscopy. With the procedures for sample surface preparation provided in the present book, the enormous potential of advanced scanning electron microscopes can be realized fully. This will take the reader to an entirely new level of scanning electron microscopy and finely-detailed images never seen before.

Neutrons are extremely versatile probes for investigating structure and dynamics in condensed matter. Due to their large penetration depth, they are ideal for in-situ measurements of samples situated in sophisticated and advanced environments. The advent of new high-intensity neutron sources and instruments, as well as the development of new real-time techniques, allows the tracking of transformation processes in condensed matter on a microscopic scale. The present volume provides a review of the state of the art of this new and exciting field of kinetics with neutrons.

Problem-solving is the cornerstone of all walks of scientific research. Fascinating Problems for Young Physicists attempts to clear the boundaries of seemingly abstract physical laws and their tangible effects through a step-by-step approach to physics in the world around us. It consists of 42 problems with detailed solutions, each describing a specific, interesting physical phenomenon. Each problem is further divided into questions designed to guide the reader through, encouraging engagement with and learning the physics behind the phenomenon. By solving the problems, the reader will be able to discover, for example, what the relation is between the mass of an animal and its expected lifetime, or what the efficiency limit is of wind turbines. Intended for first-year undergraduate students and interested high school students, this book develops inquiry-based scientific practice and enables students to acquire the necessary skills for applying the laws of physics to realistic situations.

This book describes energy loss magnetic chiral dichroism (EMCD), a phenomenon in energy loss spectroscopy discovered in 2006. EMCD is the equivalent of XMCD but is based on fast probe electrons in the electron microscope. A spatial resolution of 2 nm has been demonstrated, and the lattice-resolved mapping of atomic spins appears feasible. EMCD is, thus, a promising technique for magnetic studies on the nanometer and sub-nanometer scale, providing the technical and logistic advantages of electron microscopy, such as in situ chemical and structural information, easy access, and low cost.

Soft matter science is nowadays an acronym for an increasingly important class of materials, which ranges from polymers, liquid crystals, colloids up to complex macromolecular assemblies, covering sizes from the nanoscale up the microscale. Computer simulations have proven as an indispensable, if not the most powerful, tool to understand properties of these materials and link theoretical models to experiments. In this first volume of a small series recognized leaders of the field review advanced topics and provide critical insight into the state-of-the-art methods and scientific questions of this lively domain of soft condensed matter research.

This series presents critical reviews of the present and future trends in polymer and biopolymer science including chemistry, physical chemistry, physics and materials science. It is addressed to all scientists at universities and in industry who wish to keep abreast of advances in the topics covered.

Impact Factor Ranking: Always number one in Polymer Science. More information as well as the electronic version of the whole content available at: www.springerlink.com

This book provides an introduction to the fundamental concepts, techniques, and methods used for electron microscopy at high resolution in space, energy, and even in time. It delineates the theory of elastic scattering, which is most useful for spectroscopies and chemical analyses. There are also discussions of the theory and practice of image calculations, and applications of HRTEM to the study of solid surfaces, highly disordered materials, solid state chemistry, minerology, semiconductors, and metals. Contributors include: J. Cowley, J. Spence, P. Buseck, P. Self, and M.A. O'Keefe. Compiled by experts in the fields of geology, physics and chemistry, this comprehensive text will be the standard reference for years to come.

The term scienti?c inquiry as manifest in different educational settings covers a wide range of diverse activities. The differences in types of scienti?c inquiry can be organized along a continuum according to the degree of teacher control and intellectual sophistication involved in each type of inquiry. Types of scienti?c inquiry can also be de?ned according to whether they produce cultural knowledge or personal knowledge. Authentic scienti?c inquiry is de?ned according to ?ve characteristics: devel- ment of personal and cultural knowledge; contextualized scienti?c knowledge; the progression toward high-order problem solving; social interaction for s- enti?c goals; and scienti?c inquiry as a multi-stage and multi-representational process. The de?nition of scienti?c inquiry that forms the basis for the development of an assessment program consists of a two-part analytical frame: the de?nition of knowledge types relevant to scienti?c inquiry and the de?nition of an organi- tional frame for these knowledge types. Four types of knowledge are signi?cant for the de?nition of a speci?c s- enti?c inquiry program: cognitive knowledge, physical knowledge, represen- tional knowledge, and presentational knowledge. All four of these knowledge types are considered signi?cant. These four types of knowledge are organized in a framework that consists of two intersecting axes: the axis of knowledge types and the axis of stages of a s- ci?c scienti?c inquiry. This framework describes scienti?c inquiry as multi-stage process that involves the development of a series of in-lab outcomes (represen- tions) over an extended period of time.

Recent advances in the biosciences have led to a range of powerful new technologies, particularly nucleic acid, protein and cell-based methodologies. The most recent insights have come to affect how scientists investigate and define cellular processes at the molecular level. This book expands upon the techniques included in the first edition, providing theory, outlines of practical procedures, and applications for a range of techniques. Written by a well-established panel of research scientists, the book provides an up-to-date collection of methods used regularly in the authors own research programs.

Scientists' views on what makes an experiment successful have developed dramatically throughout history. Different criteria for proper experimentation were privileged at different times, entirely new criteria for securing experimental results emerged, and the meaning of commitment to experimentation altered. In About Method, Schickore captures this complex trajectory of change from 1660 to the twentieth century through the history of snake venom research. As experiments with poisonous snakes and venom were both challenging and controversial, the experimenters produced very detailed accounts of their investigations, which go back three hundred years-making venom research uniquely suited for such a long-term study. By analyzing key episodes in the transformation of venom research, Schickore is able to draw out the factors that have shaped methods discourse in science. About Method shows that methodological advancement throughout history has not been simply a steady progression toward better, more sophisticated and improved methodologies of experimentation. Rather, it was a progression in awareness of the obstacles and limitations that scientists face in developing strategies to probe the myriad unknown complexities of nature. The first long-term history of this development and of snake venom research, About Method offers a major contribution to integrated history and philosophy of science.

Lasers are employed throughout science and technology, in fundamental research, the remote sensing of atmospheric gases or pollutants, communications, medical diagnostics and therapies, and the manufacturing of microelectronic devices. Understanding the principles of their operation, which underlie all of these areas, is essential for a modern scientific education. This text introduces the characteristics and operation of lasers through laboratory experiments designed for the undergraduate curricula in Chemistry and Physics. Introductory chapters describe the properties of light, the history of laser invention, the atomic, molecular and optical principles behind how lasers work, and the kinds of lasers available today. Other chapters include the basic theory of spectroscopy and computational chemistry used to interpret laser experiments. Experiments range from simple in-class demonstrations to more elaborate configurations for advanced students. Each chapter has historical and theoretical background, as well as options suggested for variations on the prescribed experiments. The text will be useful for undergraduates students in advanced lab classes, for instructors designing these classes, or for graduate students beginning a career in laser science.

Lungenfunktionsuntersuchung, inklusive der arteriellen Blutgasanalyse, und Spiroergometrie zahlen zu den etablierten Diagnoseverfahren. Der Autor behandelt die physiologischen und physikalischen Grundlagen und vermittelt die Analyse und klinische Interpretation der Befunde: Messwerte, typische Befundmuster und ihre Deutung. Fur die 3.Auflage wurden Definitionen und Referenzwerte aktualisiert. Neu sind Themen wie die Anwendung der Wassermann schen Neunfeldertafel. Der Band enthalt die neueste Demonstrationsversion der Software Pulmopret light.

Recent advances in the biosciences have led to a range of powerful new technologies, particularly nucleic acid, protein and cell-based methodologies. The most recent insights have come to affect how scientists investigate and define cellular processes at the molecular level. This book expands upon the techniques included in the first edition, providing theory, outlines of practical procedures, and applications for a range of techniques. Written by a well-established panel of research scientists, the book provides an up-to-date collection of methods used regularly in the authors own research programs.

The study of polymers by electron microscopy (EM) needs special techniques, precautions and preparation methods, including ultramicrotomy. General characteristics of the different techniques of EM, including scanning force microscopy, are given in this hands-on book. The application of these techniques to the study of morphology and properties, particularly micromechanical properties, is described in detail. Examples from all classes of polymers are presented.