Human language is a weird communication system: it has more in common with birdsong than with the calls of other primates. Jean Aitchison explores the origins of human language and how it has evolved. She likens the search to a vast prehistoric jigsaw puzzle, in which numerous fragments of evidence must be assembled. Such evidence is pieced together from a mixture of linguistic and nonlinguistic sources such as evolution theory, archaeology, psychology, and anthropology. This is an accessible and wide-ranging introduction to the origins and evolution of human language.

Linguistic variation has most commonly been studied in communities that have the dominant social organization of our time: occupational and ethnic diversity, socioeconomic stratification, and a population size that precludes community-wide face-to-face interaction. In such communities literacy introduces overarching, extra-community linguistic norms, and linguistic variation correlates with socioeconomic class. Investigating Variation explores a different kind of social organization: small size, enclavement, common occupation, absence of social stratification, bilingualism with extremely weak extra-community norming for the local minority language, which shows a very high level of individual variation. Nancy C. Dorian's examination of the fisherfolk Gaelic spoken in a Highland Scottish village offers a number of explanations for delayed recognition of linguistic variation unrelated to social class or other social sub-groups. Reports of similar variation phenomena in locations with similar social-setting and social organization features (contemporary minority-language pockets in Ireland, Russia, Norway, Canada, and Cameroon) make it possible to recognize a particular set of factors that contribute to the emergence and persistence of socially neutral inter-speaker and intra-speaker variation. The documented existence of still other forms of social organization, rare now but once more widespread, suggests that additional forms of linguistic variation, as well as other facets of language use related to social organization, remain unexamined, calling for attention before the few communities that represent them disappear altogether.

Slang, writes Michael Adams, is poetry on the down low, and sometimes lowdown poetry on the down low, but rarely, if ever, merely lowdown. It is the poetry of everyday speech, the people's poetry, and it deserves attention as language playing on the cusp of art. In Slang: The People's Poetry, Adams covers this perennially interesting subject in a serious but highly engaging way, illuminating the fundamental question "What is Slang" and defending slang-and all forms of nonstandard English-as integral parts of the American language. Why is an expression like "bed head" lost in a lexical limbo, found neither in slang nor standard dictionaries? Why are snow-boarding terms such as "fakie," "goofy foot," "ollie" and "nollie" not considered slang? As he addresses these and other lexical curiosities, Adams reveals that slang is used in part to define groups, distinguishing those who are "down with it" from those who are "out of it." Slang is also a rebellion against the mainstream. It often irritates those who color within the lines-indeed, slang is meant to irritate, sometimes even to shock. But slang is also inventive language, both fun to make and fun to use. Rather than complain about slang as "bad" language, Adams urges us to celebrate slang's playful resistance to the commonplace and to see it as the expression of an innate human capacity, not only for language, but for poetry. A passionate defense of slang, jargon, argot and other forms of nonstandard English, this marvelous volume is full of amusing and even astonishing examples of all sorts of slang. It will be a must for students of language and a joy for word lovers everywhere.

What's ILL in one place can be WACK in another, or the same word can actually have TOTES different meanings. It's CRAY CRAY! From KEWL girls hitting on HENCH boys to wannabe gangstas hangin' with their DOGGS in the ENDZ, teen slang can leave NOOBS CONFUZZLED. If you want to appear DOPE or just want to know WTF is going on, How to Talk Teen is the ultimate guide! Bugly : Short for butt ugly; exceeded on the ugly ranking by dugly and fugly. Pfun: More than mere fun. This is pure fun. Rando: A random person who appears at parties but who no one seems to know, let alone invited. Hiberdating: Disappearing from view because you're spending almost all your time with your new boyfriend/girlfriend. Nodel: Someone who thinks they look like a model . . . but nobody else does. Rentsy: Acting like parents, i.e. acting responsibly or demonstrating a nauseating taste in music. Mis-wave: To wave back at someone you think is waving at you, but who was actually waving to someone else. Ugly radius: The distance from you that someone stops looking attractive. Hot mess: Someone attractive who looks cool and in control, but who's an emotional train wreck. Lipsin: Kissing energetically - but less aggressively than a full-on snog. Selfie claw: Your contorted hand as you simultaneously hold your phone and take the photo. Air Five: High-five greeting to someone from across a room. Endz: The street where you live or the immediate neighbourhood. Pit stick: Underarm antiperspirant/deodorant. Top bantz: Particularly insightful or mocking banter. Hashtag Douchebag: A moron who uses hashtags excessively in anything they type in an attempt to be witty

Kaaps as Afrikaanse omgangsvarieteit word deur verskillende outeurs vanuit diverse invalshoeke betrag. Die boek beslaan nege hoofstukke in twee afdelings wat onderskeidelike die taalkundigheid en die kontekstuele gebruike van Kaaps bekyk. Dis gebaseer op referate wat gelewer is by die eerste simposium oor Kaaps in 2012. Kaaps word in die boek voorgehou as ’n waardige, talig genuanseerde en lewenskragtige vorm van Afrikaans. Die ekonomiese potensiaal van Kaaps en die benutting daarvan as onderwys- en joernalistieke medium word ook bespreek.

An engaging look at the aphorism, the shortest literary form, across time, languages, and cultures Aphorisms-or philosophical short sayings-appear everywhere, from Confucius to Twitter, the Buddha to the Bible, Heraclitus to Nietzsche. Yet despite this ubiquity, the aphorism is the least studied literary form. What are its origins? How did it develop? How do religious or philosophical movements arise from the enigmatic sayings of charismatic leaders? And why do some of our most celebrated modern philosophers use aphoristic fragments to convey their deepest ideas? In A Theory of the Aphorism, Andrew Hui crisscrosses histories and cultures to answer these questions and more. With clarity and precision, Hui demonstrates how aphorisms-ranging from China, Greece, and biblical antiquity to the European Renaissance and nineteenth century-encompass sweeping and urgent programs of thought. Constructed as literary fragments, aphorisms open new lines of inquiry and horizons of interpretation. In this way, aphorisms have functioned as ancestors, allies, or antagonists to grand systems of philosophy. Encompassing literature, philology, and philosophy, the history of the book and the history of reading, A Theory of the Aphorism invites us to reflect anew on what it means to think deeply about this pithiest of literary forms.

Do you "know" that posh comes from an acronym meaning "port out, starboard home"? That "the whole nine yards" comes from (pick one) the length of a WWII gunner's belt; the amount of fabric needed to make a kilt; a sarcastic football expression? That Chicago is called "The Windy City" because of the bloviating habits of its politicians, and not the breeze off the lake?
If so, you need this book. David Wilton debunks the most persistently wrong word histories, and gives, to the best of our actual knowledge, the real stories behind these perennially mis-etymologized words.
In addition, he explains why these wrong stories are created, disseminated, and persist, even after being corrected time and time again. What makes us cling to these stories, when the truth behind these words and phrases is available, for the most part, at any library or on the Internet?
Arranged by chapters, this book avoids a dry A-Z format. Chapters separate misetymologies by kind, including The Perils of Political Correctness (picnics have nothing to do with lynchings), Posh, Phat Pommies (the problems of bacronyming--the desire to make every word into an acronym), and CANOE (which stands for the Conspiracy to Attribute Nautical Origins to Everything).
Word Myths corrects long-held and far-flung examples of wrong etymologies, without taking the fun out of etymology itself. It's the best of both worlds: not only do you learn the many wrong stories behind these words, you also learn why and how they are created--and what the real story is.

What is it to 'cock a snook', where is the land of Nod, and who was first to go the extra mile? Find the answers to these questions (and many more!) in the new edition of the Oxford Dictionary of Idioms. This dictionary uncovers the meanings of myriad phrases and sayings that are used daily in the English language, encompassing more than 10,000 figurative expressions, similes, sayings, and proverbs. More than 400 idioms have been added to this new edition, and comprise recently coined and common sayings alike. New additions include 'back of the net', 'drag and drop', 'go it alone', 'how come?', 'if you ask me', 'make your skin crawl', and 'woe betide'. Illustrative quotations sourced from the Oxford corpora give contextual examples of the idioms and their standard usage, and many entries include background information on the origins of the idiom in question. An updated thematic index makes for easy navigation, and anyone who is interested in the origins and diversity of English vernacular will have hours of fun browsing this fascinating dictionary.

This book looks at native speaker varieties of English, considering how and why they differ in terms of their pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and spelling. It shows how the major national varieties of English have developed, why similar causes have given rise to different effects in different parts of the world, and how the same problems of description arise in relation to all 'colonial' Englishes. It covers varieties of English spoken in Britain, the USA, Canada, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand and the Falkland Islands. * Introductory text, presupposes a minimum of previous knowledge * Focuses on common traits rather than on individual varieties * Informed by latest research on dialect mixing * Exercises included with each chapter * References for further reading in each chapter

The decision by the Oakland, California school board to declare "Ebonics" as the official language of their African-American students unleashed a firestorm of controversy with overtly racial overtones. While the vast majority of linguists were caught off guard by these events, equivocating over technical distinctions between "a language" and "a dialect", journalists, legislators, and the public demanded to know more about "Ebonics", and the controversial claims that were asserted by its proponents. John Baugh, a leading authority on African-American English, sifts through the volatile circumstances and evidence that triggered this debate, including the origin of Ebonics, and provides detailed comparisons of the notorious resolutions that brought it to global attention.

There are some 6,500 different languages in the world; they belong to around 250 distinct families and conform to numerous grammatical types. This book investigates why diversity arose, how it relates to the origins and evolution of language and culture, and whether the uneven distribution of human languages may be linked with patterns of human geography and history. Daniel Nettle draws on work in anthropology, linguistics, geography, archaeology, and evolutionary science to explain linguistic diversity. He writes clearly and accessibly: his book will appeal broadly across the human and natural sciences, as well as to the informed general reader.

Diachronic Prototype Semantics is concerned with the theory of explanation of changes in word meaning. The author demonstrates the explanatory value of the prototype model of meaning, in which the distinction between central and peripheral senses of a word is crucial.

Although the large Hispanic community of Los Angeles is basically a geographically stable urban community, bound by historical, social, linguistic, and cultural factors, both its boundaries and its internal structure are impermanent and undergoing constant change. In this original study of Spanish-English bilinguals in Los Angeles County, Carmen Silva-Corvalan explores in depth the linguistic, cognitive, and social processes underlying language maintenance, as well as changes characteristic of language shift and loss. She brings together analytical techniques employed in sociolinguistics, functional syntax, and discourse analysis.

In the most reliable and readable guide to effective writing for the Americans of today, Wilson answers questions of meaning, grammar, pronunciation, punctuation, and spelling in thousands of clear, concise entries. His guide is unique in presenting a systematic, comprehensive view of language as determined by context. Wilson provides a simple chart of contexts -- from oratorical speech to intimate, from formal writing to informal -- and explains in which contexts a particular usage is appropriate, and in which it is not.

The Columbia Guide to Standard Written American English provides the answers to questions about American English the way no other guide can with:

* an A--Z format for quick reference;

* over five thousand entries, more than any other usage book;

* sensible and useful advice based on the most current linguistic research;

* a convenient chart of levels of speech and writing geared to context;

* both descriptive and prescriptive entries for guidance;

* guidelines for nonsexist usage;

* individual entries for all language terms.

A vibrant description of how our language is being spoken and written at the end of the twentieth century -- and how we ourselves can use it most effectively -- The Columbia Guide to Standard American English is the ideal handbook to language etiquette: friendly, sensible, and reliable.

Audio recordings of English are available from the first half of the twentieth century and thus complement the written data sources for the recent history of the language. This book is the first to bring together a team of globally recognised scholars to document and analyse these early recordings in a single volume. Looking at examples of regional varieties of English from England, Scotland, Ireland, the USA, Canada and other anglophone countries, the volume explores both standard and vernacular varieties, and demonstrates how accents of English have changed between the late nineteenth century and the present day. The socio-phonetic examinations of the recordings will be of interest to scholars of historical linguistics, the history of the English language, language variation and change, phonetics, and phonology.

Extensively revised and updated, this second edition provides, in an A-Z format, an analysis of the most important generalizations that have been made on the unidirectional change of grammatical forms and constructions. Based on the analysis of more than 1,000 languages, it reconstructs over 500 processes of grammatical change in the languages of the world, including East Asian languages such as Chinese, Korean and Japanese. Readers are provided with the tools to discover how lexical and grammatical meanings can be related to one another in a principled way, how such issues as polysemy, heterosemy, and transcategoriality are dealt with, and why certain linguistic forms have simultaneous lexical and grammatical functions. Definitions of lexical concepts are provided with examples from a broad variety of languages, and references to key relevant research literature. Linguists and other scholars will gain a better understanding of languages on a worldwide scale.

This audio recording, which accompanies the Luath Scots Language Learner book, conveys the authentic pronunciation, especially important to readers from outside Scotland. It is suitable as an introductory course or for those interested in reacquainting themselves with the language of childhood and grandparents. There are dictionaries and grammar books but this is the first-ever language course. The book assumes no prior knowledge on the reader's part. Starting from the most basic vocabulary and constructions, the reader is guided step-by-step through Scots vocabulary and the subtleties of grammar and idiom that distinguish Scots from English.

What is odd about the phrase Scots wha hae? Why do you say you've got the cold in Scots? Is there a difference between ane and yin? Do you say youse to one person or two? These are just some of the questions about Scots that are answered in the Grammar Broonie, the Scottish National Dictionary Association's guide to Scots grammar. This new, expanded edition of the Grammar Broonie includes a special section of classroom exercises by well-known Scots writer and teacher, Matthew Fitt. Intended mainly for use at upper primary and lower secondary level, the Grammar Broonie aims to show that Scots has a distinctive grammar in addition to its rich vocabulary, spelling and pronunciation. The text throughout is written in colloquial Scots. This new edition of the Grammar Broonie: *identifies characteristics of Scots grammar *Explains how Scots differs from English grammar *Includes a table of Scots irregular verbs *Discusses regional variations in spelling and grammar *Draws examples from everyday Scots usage *Uses graphics to highligh important grammar points *Includes grammar exercises for use in the classroom

Compared with the 1978 version (2,384 titles), the new edition of the Bibliography now boasts 3,600 entries on dialect research in the German-speaking Southwest. Alongside specifically dialectological writings, they also encompass studies of regional usage past and present (e.g., legal and official language, older dramas and poetic works, present-day spoken German in the Southwest) and relevant literature from neighbouring fields (folklore studies, history of law). Two newly designed maps indicate the areas covered by all the dialectographic studies listed.

This volume provides an overview of all aspects of Hong Kong English in a style designed for undergraduates and general readers. As a former British colony, Hong Kong used English as the language of government, law and education in the early days of colonial rule. Since the Handover from British to Chinese rule in 1997, it is no longer used as the primary language of government. However, the status of English has survived the decline of colonial rule, as English has become an international language which is indispensable for a service-oriented economy such as present-day Hong Kong. Its use is still widespread in legal contexts, and English is the medium of instruction in at least a quarter of secondary schools. Outwith the realm of education, English is important as a means of international communication in the fields of banking and finance, business, and in the tourism and hospitality industry. English is therefore integrated into Hong Kong life in various ways and this has resulted in a thriving and developing variety of English. This book describes English in Hong Kong as a linguistic phenomenon from the point of view of language structure, but also takes into account historical, socio-cultural and socio-political developments.

Slang is language with its sleeves rolled up, colorful, pointed, brash, bristling with humor and sometimes with hostility. Now, in Oxford Dictionary of Modern Slang, John Ayto and John Simpson have gathered together a vibrant collection of over 6,000 slang terms, drawn from the vast OxfordEnglish Dictionary database. The volume is organized thematically, under such general headings as the body and its functions; people and society; animals; sustenance and intoxication; money, commerce, and employment; and time and tide. Within each section the words are listed chronologically, starting with the earliest words and progressing right through to the present, thus illuminating the development of slang and colloquial language over the years. Each entry contains the headword, part of speech, and definition, and most also have illustrative examples of the term in context. Many entries contain labels indicating the social group or discipline from which a word derives--such as theatrical, military, or nautical--as well as the place where it originated. In addition, when the term has had more than one meaning, the various senses are listed chronologically.

Slang, however one judges it, shows us at our most human. It is used widely and often, typically associated with the writers of noir fiction, teenagers, and rappers, but also found in the works of Shakespeare and Dickens. It has been recorded since at least 1500 AD, and today's vocabulary, taken from every major English-speaking country, runs to over 125,000 slang words and phrases. This Very Short Introduction takes readers on a wide-ranging tour of this fascinating sub-set of the English language. It considers the meaning and origins of the word 'slang' itself, the ideas that a make a word 'slang', the long-running themes that run through slang, and the history of slang's many dictionaries. ABOUT THE SERIES: The Very Short Introductions series from Oxford University Press contains hundreds of titles in almost every subject area. These pocket-sized books are the perfect way to get ahead in a new subject quickly. Our expert authors combine facts, analysis, perspective, new ideas, and enthusiasm to make interesting and challenging topics highly readable.

"Rich and powerful—and funky and bold—dissects black writing and speech, its grammar and history, its controversy, and the media coverage of it. . . . A book that’s truly da bomb."—Geneva Smitherman

"The language, only the language. . . . It’s a love, a passion. Its function is like a preacher’s: to make you stand up out of your seat, make you lose yourself and hear yourself. The worst of all possible things that could happen would be to lose that language."—Toni Morrison (1981)

Claude Brown called it "Spoken Soul." Legendary author James Baldwin referred to it as "incredible music." Writers from Paul Laurence Dunbar to Toni Morrison and Alice Walker have employed it to fully convey the experiences of black America.

In Spoken Soul: The Story of Black English, scholar and linguistics expert John R. Rickford and journalist Russell J. Rickford offer a fascinating, definitive history of the use of Black English in literature, the performing arts, religion, and everyday conversation. The Rickfords also explore America’s love/hate relationship with Black English and its role in our ongoing dialogue about why and how race matters.

From our embrace of Black English as the language of jazz, funk, hip-hop, and rap, to the media-fanned furor surrounding proposals to use Ebonics as a springboard to teaching Standard English, Black English is as deeply rooted in America’s politics as it is in America’s culture. The Rickfords scrupulously show how education, the media, and society have been affected by the power and tenacity of Spoken Soul.

If you love words or are interested in the connection between language and identity, Spoken Soul will intrigue and enlighten you.

"Spoken Soul brilliantly fills a huge gap. . . a delightfully readable introduction to the elegant interweave between the language and its culture, its admirable linguistic structure, its multifaceted history, and its potential use in education."—Ralph W. Fasold, Georgetown university
"Spoken Soul provides a profound portrait of the power, passion, and poignancy of Black English beyond the Ebonics controversy and the perplexing paradox of linguistic prejudice."—John Baugh, Stanford University, author of Black Street Speech

In Praise of African American Vernacular English
"It possesses a pronounced lyrical quality which is frequently incompatible with any music other than that ceaselessly and relentlessly driving rhythm from poignantly spent lives."—Claude Brown (1968)

" . . . this passion, this skill, this incredible music." —James Baldwin (1978)

"Three qualities of Black English—the presence of life, voice, and clarity—testify to a distinct black value system."—June Jordan (1985)

"That mainstream English is essential to our self-preservation is indisputable. . . but it is not necessary to abandon Spoken Soul to master Standard English, any more than it is necessary to abandon English to learn French or to deprecate jazz to appreciate classical music."—John R. Rickford and Russell J. Rickford (2000)