Three additional sections have been added in this edition in response to stu dents' suggestions. A short summary of motor deficits, a brief discussion of cra nial nerve functions and some examples of localizing signs of anatomic lesions should prove helpful in applying basic principles to clinical situations. P.A. Roberts Preface The following notes, originally known as Neuroanatomical Notations, were pre pared for the purpose of providing a quick review of some of the pertinent points that should be considered in refreshing your memory of Neuroanatomy. Obviously the booklet is not encyclopedic, and is certainly not intended as a text on the subject. However, hopefully, it will serve as a useful guide and be of aid in the task of systematically preparing for Part I of the National Boards and similar examinations. P.A. Roberts "I can't believe that " said Alice. "Can't you " The Queen said in a pitying tone. "Try again: Draw a long breath, and shut your eyes." Alice laughed, "There's no use trying," she said. "One can't believe impossible things." "I dare say you haven't had much practice," said the Queen."

This is not a textbook. Instead, it contains what the author judges necessary to cope with questions relating to Gross Anatomy in board and licensure exami nations. Although material that has appeared recently on (Part I) National Board Examinations is covered, simply listing and answering such questions certainly would not prepare you for the myriad possible alternatives. Because of your suc cessful background in anatomy, the approaches used in a first-year course are not necessary here. Recall, review and synthesis are the goals. Please examine the entire book now, to understand its organization and content, and how they may serve your needs. Throughout, text is kept to a minimum. The style, size and boldness of type were chosen to aid the quick recognition of import items. The illustrations, es sentially adaptations from blackboard drawings used by the author in reviews, support the text in certain areas. However, the number of illustrations sufficient to make this an independent resource would defeat our purpose. I assume you will consult your favorite atlas as you review, and that you are experienced enough now to relate your reading to your own body. A general table of contents follows this preface; detailed tables of content precede individual chapters."

1. 1 Historical Perspective In the nineteenth century, knowledge of the events leading to ovulation, fertilization, and implantation was very limited, so much so that Seiler (1832), in his book The Uterus and the Human Egg, wrote: ." . . in the left ovary the first signs of fertilization, namely a Graaf vesicle could be seen. The right ovary shows proof of a second successful copulation: a fresh scar from the ovulated egg and the beginning of a corpus luteum. " In fact all nineteenth century authors strictly divide the female cycle into two phases: the menstrual period and the intermenstruum (ct. Hitschmann and Adler 1908). The generally accepted histology of the endometrium in those days was that of the late proliferative phase. Deviations from this were considered to be pathological (Von Ebner 1902). As Gebhard (1899) expressly put it: "As a rule, it can be said that in the mature woman the endometrial glands run straight; an irregular course of the glands is to be regarded as pathological. " The same author describes the changes occurring during the secretory phase of the cycle as "endometritis glandularis" which he believed to arise from a local nutritional disturbance. The uterine stroma was believed to be lymphoid (Toldt 1877), and the uterine glands were compared to the crypts of Lieberkiihn (Von Ebner 1902).

This book is intended for students of medicine, pharmacy and other biological disciplines, who want to have a working knowledge of the mechanisms of action, uses and adverse effects of drugs which modify the activity of neurotransmitters in the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is suitable for undergraduates and for post-graduates on taught higher degree courses and diplomas. New information and concepts have been incorporated into the text as appropriate, and references have been updated. Excitatoryand inhibitory amino acids are considered in two chapters, and the last chapter of the first two editions (which considered drugs which do not interact selectively with neurotransmitters) has been subsumed into other sections. The third edition follows the tried format of previous editions. Following a chapter which introduces the biology and pharmacology of neurotransmission, subsequent chapters deal with synthesis, storage, release, receptors and inactivation of individual neurotransmitters, together with a consideration of therapeutic uses and mechanisms of adverse effects.

This highly regarded text is one of the most comprehensive reference works available on the topographical, functional and radiographic anatomy of the lumbosacral spine. Fully updated in this sixth edition, Clinical and Radiological Anatomy of the Lumbar Spine walks the reader through the structure, function and common disorders of the lumbar spine. It covers the basic anatomy of lumbar components, how the spine changes with age, clinical problems, and imaging. Internationally renowned author Nikolai Bogduk's thorough referencing and clear text bridge the gap between science and clinical presentation to provide practical, validated and clinically relevant information that will be invaluable for students and clinicians alike. Clearly written and accessible - brings the science to life Thoroughly and comprehensively referenced - can be used as a starting point for research High quality illustrations to support understanding Highly relevant to undergraduate and postgraduate courses in physiotherapy, pain medicine, chiropractic, and rehabilitation medicine New understanding of the causes and pathology of back pain Additional references reflect current literature New, colour illustrations of nerves Expanded radiographic anatomy chapter

This book provides a comprehensive survey of the structure and fiber connections of the human midbrain, specifically of the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. The cellular and chemical architecture of these structures is analyzed and the structures' fiber connections are discussed. The role that they play in degenerative diseases of the nervous system, such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases, is evaluated. Some functional and pathophysiological considerations are included.

When I wrote my doctoral thesis in 1969 on the subject of blood flow in arteries, "biofluid mechanics" had not yet been introduced. I was fIrst introduced to the term "Biofluid Mechanics" in 1973 by Professor E. Truckenbrodt. A course of study in 'biofluidmechanics' and a regular program of scientifIc research was begun at the Technical University of Munich in 1975. I have never stopped being fascinated with this fIeld. The main goal of the 2nd International Symposium on Biofluid Mechanics and Biorheology, like the fIrst Symposium held in Palm Springs, was to bring together physicians, physicists, bioengineers, and technical specialists with expertise in clini- cal, experimental, rheological and numerical analysis of the complex problem of blood flow and cardiovascular disease. As we discovered and are still fmding out, biofluid mechanics is a complex fIeld, encompassing, touching on or surely affecting many other scientifIc disciplines, including biology, medicine, biochemistry, bior- heology, mathematics, bioengineering and physics. This book, the Proceedings of our second meeting, represents the fmest work to date in the fIeld. The contributors, representing more than 20 countries, are among the most innovative, imaginative and hard-working researchers in their fIelds. They represent many disciplines and many fIelds of interest.

Strongly recommended for the surgical trainee this, the second of a number of atlas-texts describing the anatomical basis of a range of common surgicalprocedures, is a useful aide-memoir to operative surgery

Experimental results reached by the authors as well as various hypotheses previously advanced by other research workers are examined in this volume. The authors' study of the course of bloodstreams in the ventricular outflow tract and in the 6th and 4th branchial arterial arches points to 13 hemodynamic patterns and 13 changes in the direction of the endocardial septal ridges. They describe the hemodynamic processes of development of several well-known malformations of the great arteries and of other vascular anomalies that have not been identified morphologically. The authors conclude that it is possible in this way to correctly explain the cardiovascular malformations that have been obtained experimentally.

This book is directed at advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students-and their teachers-who are involved in those areas of cell biology which require a basic knowledge of cytoskeletal structure, parti cularly with respect to cell motility. It contains a core of basic information on the cytoskeleton and focuses especially on its functional aspects, from the swimming of spermatozoa to the crawling of cultured cells across their culture dish; from the transport of vesicles and organelles along nerve axons, to the orderly segregation of chromosomes at mitosis. Cytoskeleton research spans a wide range of scientific disciplines. It is as important for students or research workers investigating, for example, the deposition of the higher plant cell wall to have easy access to a core of basic information regarding microtubules as it is for someone interested in endocytosis and the fate of cell surface receptors. The authors are involved in the teaching of the cytoskeleton and cell motility at all levels of undergraduate study at University College London, but each has a research interest in different aspects of the subject: TMP in amoeboid locomotion, CAK in gliding motility and JSH in cilia, flagella and mitosis.

To give an update in the field of haemostasis scientists and clinicians fromoverseas and European countries met to dis- cuss the new trends in pathophysiology and clinical impli- cations. This book is devoted to the interactions of endo- thelial functions, tissue factors, coagulation inhibitors and haemostasis as well as detection and prophylaxis of thromboembolism. Data are presented of significant new re- search work on molecular and clinical approaches to diseases in haemostasis.

Two research centers joined to study the development of numerous malformations of the vertebral column in 30 mutants of the laboratory mouse: the Department of Anatomy of the University of Zurich, that has long been a center of research in vertebral anatomy and pathology, and the Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine, the largest center of research in mouse genetics. This volume describes the normal and abnormal morphogenesis of vertebrae and summarizes the data presently available in order to give better insight into the developmental mechanics of the vertebral column.

This volume provides an interdisciplinary approach to this central research topic. Firstly, the hippocampus is presented generally as a model for experiments on neurotransmission in the central nervous system; secondly, special features of synaptic organisation and synaptic transmission in this area of the brain are introduced. Of particular note is the wide-ranging methodological approach which includes light and electron microscopy, immunocytochemistry, Golgi/EM techniques, intracellular differentiation and intracellular colorings, histochemistry of transmitter enzymes and receptoraudiography. The reader thereby gains insight into the broad scope of methodological possibilities for the examination of such a complex problem as neurotransmission in the hippocampus.

Though more than 300 years have elapsed since the first description of the peculiar course of the spinal accessory (XI) nerve by Willis (1664), the crucial problems concerning what is known as accessory field of musculature and its innervation are still unsolved and a matter of controversy. Like the bulbar XI, the spinal XI nerve is commonly regarded as originally a branch of the vagus and, therefore, as a cranial nerve (Fiirbringer 1897; Gegenbaur 1898; Lubosch 1899). However, whether this nerve is of special visceral or somatic derivation is still debated. The conventional distinction between these function ally separate categories of cranial nerves is based largely on two criteria, namely, the position of the cranial nerve nucleus and the embryological derivation of the muscles innervated by this nerve. Unfortunately, little is known about the development of this accessory field of musculature, and the evidence concern ing the position of the spinal XI nucleus is contradictory. In fact, although the spinal XI nerve is usually regarded as a purely efferent nerve belong ing to the special visceral efferent group of cranial nerves and innervating muscles derived from the branchial mesoderm, each of these properties has been questioned. Consequently, the classification of the nerve is still unset tled. Evidence in support of a special visceral origin of the spinal XI nerve is found in the phylogenetic history of the spinal XI nucleus.

Nearly 10 years have elapsed since I finished writing the first edition of Intro duction to Molecular Embryology. During this period, molecular embryology has made great strides forward, but without undergoing a major revolution; there fore, the general philosophy and outline of the book have remained almost un changed. However, all the chapters had to be almost completely rewritten in or der to introduce new facts and to eliminate findings which have lost interest or have been disproved. There was a major gap in the first edition of this book: very little was said about mammalian eggs despite their obvious interest for mankind. Research on mammalian eggs and embryos is so active today that this important topic deserves a full chapter in a book concerned with molecular embryology. Therefore, I am very thankful to my colleague Dr. Henri Alexandre, who has written a chapter on mammalian embryology (Chap. 9) and has prepared all the illustrations for this book."

6 Acknowledgments 87 7 References 88 Subject Index 95 VIII Abbreviations A cerebral aqueduct anterior deep dorsal nucleus, CGM AD AP anterior pretectal nucleus AR auditory radiation ASD anterior superficial dorsal nucleus, CGM BA brachium, accessory (medial) nucleus, IC BIC brachium of inferior colliculus BSC brachium of superior colliculus cerebellum CB CC caudal cortex, IC CF cuneate fasciculus CG central gray CGL lateral geniculate body medial geniculate body CGM commissure of inferior colliculus CIC CIN central intralaminar nucleus CL lateral part of commissural nucleus, IC CM central medial nucleus CN central nucleus, IC CORD spinal cord CP cerebral peduncle CSC commissure, SC CUN cuneiform area, IC D dorsal nucleus, CGM DA anterior dorsal nucleus, CGM DC dorsal cortex, IC DD deep dorsal nucleus, CGM DI dorsal intercollicular area DM dorsomedial nucleus, IC DMCP decussation of superior cerebellar peduncle DS superficial dorsal nucleus, CGM EYE enucleation FX fornix GN gracile nucleus HIT habenulo-interpeduncular tract inferior colliculus IC III oculomotor nerve IN interpeduncular nucleus L posterior limitans nucleus LC laterocaudal nucleus, IC LI lateral intercollicular area LL lateral lemniscus lateral mesencephalic nucleus LMN LN lateral nucleus, IC LP lateral posterior nucleus LPc caudal part of lateral posterior nucleus LV pars lateralis, ventral nucleus, CGM M medial division, CGM MB mammillary bodies middle cerebellar peduncle MCP MES V mesencephalic nucleus of trigeminal tract MI medial intercollicular area ML medial lemniscus MLF medial longitudinal fasciculus MT mammillothalamic tract MZ marginal zone, CGM OC oculomotor nuclei occipital cortex lesion OCC OT optic tract

History of Anatomy: An International Perspective is unique in its global approach to studying the development of human anatomy. Though it references widely known anatomists, such as Aristotle, Galen, and Bell, the book also pay homage to less famous contributors to the field and explains their findings. This comprehensive history of the morphology of humans serves as a useful guide to anatomists, anthropologists, physicians, surgeons, and anyone interested in the early history of medicine and surgery.

Insectivores are considered to be primitive among the Eutheria and are therefore of particular interest (Romer 1966). In spite of this basal position of the group there are only few papers dealing with the structure of the female reproductive tract in insectivores. Erinaceus has been studied by Deanesly (1934), Talpa by Matthews (1935), some Centetinae from Madagascar by Feremutsch (1948) and Feremutsch and Strauss (1949), and Tenrec by Nicoll and Racey (1985). Among the Soricidae (shrews), Sorex (Brambe1l1935), Blarina (Pearson 1944), Neomys (price 1953), Suncus (Dryden 1969), and Crocidura (Besan~on 1984) have been investigated, but only at the light microscopical level. The first electron micro- scopical studies in this field dealt with oogenesis in Crocidura, Neomys and Sorex (Kress 1984a, b) and with the uterus of the hedgehog (Lescoat et al. 1984, 1985). The aim of this publication is to describe the female genital tract of the shrew Crocidura. The following elements were investigated: bursa ovarica, epoo- phoron, paroophoron, tuba uterina, and the uterus together with the cervix and vagina (Fig. 1). Wherever possible, morphological features are correlated with the functional changes during the annual cycle. The information serves on the one hand as a guideline for interpreting findings in ancestors, such as the monotremes and marsupials, and on the other, together, with data gained from more highly evolved mammals including man, to establish similarities as well as differences. The family Soricidae includes two subfamilies, the Soricinae (or red-toothed shrews) and the Crocidurinae (white-toothed shrews).

In birds, the beak is the most important organ for manipulative actions: its manipulative capabilities vary as much as those of the forepaws and snouts of mammals. For the peripheral parts and at brainstem levels, the sensorimotor circuit of the avian oral region is roughly similar to the mammalian, but is strikingly different at higher levels of the central nervous system (CNS) (Ariens- Kappers et al. 1936). Our field of interest is the organization of the telencephalic areas involved in the manipulative actions of the bill. The goose was chosen as a subject because of the extensive development of the tactile system of the oral region. The mechanoreceptors in the lower and upper beak are innervated by the trigeminal nerve (Cords 1904; Berkhoudt 1980), while the tongue is innervated by branches of the glossopharyngeal and hypoglossal nerves (Cords 1904). In the ganglion semilunare, the perikarya of the fibers of the trigeminal nerve are separated into a distinct ophthalmic population, and two mutually overlap- ping maxillary and mandibulary populations (Dubbeldam and Veenman 1978; Noden 1980). In duck and cockatoo both the glossopharyngeal nerve and trige- minal nerve relay in the metencephalic principal sensory nucleus of the trige- minal nerve (PrV) (Dubbeldam et al. 1979; Dubbeldam 1980; Wild 1981). In PrY the three trigeminal branches are represented in an overlapping dorsoventral sequence (Zeigler and Witkovsky 1968; Dubbeldam and Karten 1978).

Again rapid advances in the brain sciences have made it necessary, after only a few years, to issue a revised edition of this text. All the chapters have been reviewed and brought up to date, and some have been largely rewritten. The major revision has occurred in the chap ters on the autonomic nervous system and the integrative functions of the central nervous system. But in the discussion of the motor systems and other subjects as well, recent insights have necessitated certain conceptual modifications. In the description of the autonomic nervous system, the role of the intestinal innervation has been brought out more clearly than before. In addition, there is a new presentation of the physiology of smooth muscle fibers, and more attention has been paid to the postsynaptic adrenergic receptors, because of the increasing therapeutic signifi cance of the at f3 receptor concept. A substantial section on the genital reflexes in man and woman, including the extragenital changes during copulation, has also been added. The text on the integrative functions of the central nervous system has been expanded to include, for the first time, material on brain metabolism and blood flow and their dependence on the activity of the brain. Reference is also made to recent results of research on split brain and aphasic patients and on memory, as well as on the physiol ogy of sleeping and dreaming.

At the end of the nineteenth century, controversy arose as to precisely when the first glial cells originate during development of the central nervous system, and to date, the issue has not been satisfactorily resolved. His (1889, 1890) noted that, even in the earliest developmental stages of the germinallayer, there appeared to be two distinct cell types. The cells which he called Spongioblasten were thought to be glial precursors from which all mature glial cells derive; Keimzellen, in contrast, were regarded as forming 1 neurons. His was working on the assumption that the very first preneurons migrate into a preexisting framework of glial eelIs. In contrast to this view, Schaper (1897) regarded both Keimzellen and Spongioblasten as belonging to a common population of proliferating and pluripotent stem cells which begin differentiation into glial and neuronal cells at late developmental stages. It is this latter view which is the basis of the most recent studies on the subject (e. g. , Caley and Maxwell1968a, 1968b; DeVitry et al. 1980). The concept of one common stem cell seemed to be supported both by experiments using 3H-thymidine autoradiography (Fujita 1963, 1965b, 1966; Sauer and Walker 1959; Sidman et al. 1959) and by ultrastructural studies (Fu- jita 1966; Hinds and Ruffet 1971; Wechseler and Meller 1967) indicating that structural differences, which His presumably used to define his two cell types, could be related to different stages of the mitotic cycle.

The traditional education of the neurosurgeon and duce simultaneous contrast preparations of the ar- the clinician working in related specialties is based teries and veins and thus obtain a complex photo- on their presumed knowledge of the macroscopic graphic representation of the structures of the prep- anatomy of the brain as traditionally taught. Most aration. neurosurgical textbooks, therefore, provide macro- The manuscript and drawings were completed in the scopic views of sections of the operative site. The years 1974-1976 after almost two decades of neu- literature that has accumulated in recent years on rosurgical work. The data worked out in the early the subject of microneurosurgical operations also stages (Chapter 1 in particular) were used by the follows this principle. author as the basis for teaching programmes at the For some years, however, the customary macro- University of Giessen. Chapters 2-7, dealing with scopic representation of the anatomy of the brain the operative technical aspects, were produced after has been inadequate for the needs of the neurosur- mid-1975 and used by the author as the basis for geon using refined modern operative techniques. microneurosurgical teaching of his colleagues at the Furthermore, despite their detailed presentation, University of Freiburg. stereotactic atlases are also insufficient for neuro- My thanks are due to Doz. Dr. E.

Fish have adapted extremely successfully to the extremes of the aqueous environ ment, with the teleosts being outstanding in this respect. Amongst the class Pisces are pelagic species which must maintain certain swimming speeds in order to remain buoyant, species which migrate over thousands of miles, abyssal species living in waters with markedly reduced oxygen content, species living in the subzero waters of the Antarctic and also the obligatory air-breathing species of the tropics. Even in a comparatively benign environment such as the relatively shallow waters over continental shelves, the lifestyle of fish species varies greatly, with sedentary benthic and pelagic shoaling species coexisting within a comparatively narrow depth-range. Clearly, widely varying physiologi cal demands are made on species occupying such different environments and exhibiting such different lifestyles, and the successful provision of an adequate oxygen supply to the tissues is therefore of paramount importance to the fish. It follows that the demands made on the fish heart in irrigating the gill vascula ture will vary greatly according to the lifestyle and habitat of a particular species, and it is therefore surprising that authors reporting physiological, pharmacologi cal, biochemical and morphological investigations on the hearts of a consider able number of cyclostome, elasmobranch and teleost species imply that their results and conclusions can be extended to "the fish heart" in general."

The anterior inferior cerebellar artery (AI CA) is one of the major branches of the basilar artery and supplies part of the pons, the upper medulla, and the cerebellar hemisphere. The artery can be visualized by means of vertebral angiography. This technique of examination was carried out for the first time in 1933 by Moniz and co-workers (Moniz and Alves 1933, Moniz et al. 1933). During the decades that followed, angiographic techniques improved considera bly, with the result that more details of the angioarchitecture of the posterior cranial fossa could be demonstrated. Satisfactory visualization of the AICA and its branches depends greatly on the use of subtraction, and this is the reason why detailed reports on the angiographic appearance of the artery were for the greater part published after 1965, when subtraction techniques were more consistently used (Takahashi et al. 1968, 1974; Gerald et al. 1973). The angiographic appearance of the various segments of the AICA in the lateral projection, both in the normal situation and in the presence of tumors, has been studied by Naidich et al. (1976a, b). The primary aim was to recognize and denominate the separate branches, loops, and segments of the AICA in order to locate tumors on the basis of displacements of portions of the artery. The fact that the course, caliber, and distribution of the AICA are very variable was not emphasized."

In 1953, at the grand age of 92, Ferdinand Hochstetter submitted his famous collection of photographs of human embryos entitled: "Uber die Entwicklung der Formverhaltnisse des menschlichen Antlitzes." Together with others papers, this contribution was published in 1955, a year after Hochstetter's death. In unbroken combativeness, Hochstetter discussed his results with regard to those of earlier embryologists and to those of his own lifetime. Thus, in an obituary, Elze (1956) reported about one of Hochstetter's letters from the year of his death (1954): "nur einige blodsinnige Behauptungen, die Fischel in seiner Ent- wicklung des Menschen verzapft hat, mochte ich vielleicht noch annageln," which may be translated as: "I would just like to pin down a few silly assertions that Fischel made in his Entwicklung des Menschen." In the first two paragraphs of his paper Hochstetter stated (in German, here translated freely): When I decided to write a detailed paper about the development of the morphology of the human face, too [in addition to a paper about morphology of the extremities in human embryos], I was especially moved by the fact that in none of the German manuals and textbooks on embryology known to me is there to be found a presentation of the development of the human face which could be considered - eveJ;l to a limited extent - rich in details, true, sufficiently illustrated, easy to understand by students as well as by scien-