Blends of natural rubber with speciality synthetic rubbers, such as nitrile rubber and ethylene propylene rubbers, have, in the past, failed to combine the best properties of polymers, resulting in a poor return in terms of added value from the blending process. The idea of blending synthetic rubbers with natural rubbe is certainly not a new one, but it is only now that this can be shown to be possible with consistently positive resluts, but eh use of novel techniques which this book describes, giving valuable information on the technology required and the results which can be achieved. Blends of Natural Rubber is an invaluable source of information for all those working in the area of rubber technology and polymer blend technology.

A prestigious form of research grant in Germany is the Sonderforschungsbereich, which provides continuous funding over a period of up to 15 years, but only as long as the work is yielding worthwhile results. We acknowledge financial support of our work at Erlangen by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), Sonder- forschungsbereich 222. Thanks to this support, the experimental results from six Dr. -Ing. dissertations have provided the basis for our book: 8 * Schweinzer, J. (1987) Heat transfer in bubbling fluidized beds at Ar;a. 10 * Seiter, M. (1990) Particle motion and solids concentration in circulating fluidized beds * Mattmann, W. (1991) Heat transfer in pressurized circulating fluidized beds * Burschka, A. (1993) Pulsed light method * Dietz, S. (1994) Heat transfer in bubbling fluidized beds * Gruber, U. (1995) Heat transfer in lean phase systems This book is the result of the enthusiastic and trustful cooperation of its authors. Nevertheless, we are separate individuals. Chapters 1 to 12 and 19 are by O. Molerus; Chapters 13 to 18 are by K. -E. Wirth. This book came into existence after many rewrites, patiently endured by Mrs Winter, who typed all versions of the manuscript, and by Mrs Scheffler-Kohler, who drew all the figures. Bob Farmer and David Penfold helped us bridge the language gap to produce a readable book. Weare grateful to Professor Brian Scarlett of Delft University, who on behalf of Chapman & Hall allowed us to write this book.

This volume consists of the state-of-the-art reports on new developments in micromechanics and the modeling of nanoscale effects, and is a companion book to the recent Kluwer volume on nanomechanics and mul- scale modeling (it is entitled Trends in Nanoscale Mechanics). The two volumes grew out of a series of discussions held at NASA Langley Research Center (LaRC), lectures and other events shared by many researchers from the national research laboratories and academia. The key events include the 2001 Summer Series of Round-Table Discussions on Nanotechnology at ICASE Institute (NASA LaRC) organized by Drs. V. M. Harik and M. D. Salas and the 2002 NASA LaRC Workshop on Multi-scale Modeling. The goal of these interactions was to foster collaborations between academic researchers and the ICASE Institute (NASA LaRC), a universi- based institute, which has pioneered world-class computational, theoretical and experimental research in the disciplines that are important to NASA. Editors gratefully acknowledge help of Ms. E. Todd (ICASE, NASA LaRC), the ICASE Director M. D. Salas and all reviewers, in particular, Dr. B. Diskin (ICASE/NIA, NASA LaRC), Prof. R. Haftka (University of Florida), Dr. V. M. Harik (ICASE/Swales Aerospace, NASA LaRC), Prof.

With the development in the 1960s of ultrahigh vacuum equipment and techniques and electron, X-ray, and ion beam techniques to determine the structure and composition of interfaces, activities in the field of surface science grew nearly exponentially. Today surface science impacts all major fields of study from physical to biological sciences, from physics to chemistry, and all engineering disciplines. The materials and phenomena characterized by surface science range from se- conductors, where the impact of surface science has been critical to progress, to metals and ceramics, where selected contributions have been important, to bio- terials, where contributions are just beginning to impact the field, to textiles, where the impact has been marginal. With such a range of fields and applications, questions about sample selection, preparation, treatment, and handling are difficult to cover completely in one review article or one chapter. Therefore, the editors of this book have assembled a range of experts with experience in the major fields impacted by surface characterization. It is the only book which treats the subject of sample handling, preparation, and treatment for surface characterization. It is full of tricks, cautions, and handy tips to make the laboratory scientist's life easier. With respect to organization of the book, the topics range from discussion of vacuum to discussion of biological, organic, elemental or compound samples, to samples prepared ex situ or in situ to the vacuum, to deposition ofthin films. Generic considerations of sample preparation are also given.

This book deals with the latest achievements in the field of optical coherent microscopy. While many other books exist on microscopy and imaging, this book provides a unique resource dedicated solely to this subject. Similarly, many books describe applications of holography, interferometry and speckle to metrology but do not focus on their use for microscopy. The coherent light microscopy reference provided here does not focus on the experimental mechanics of such techniques but instead is meant to provide a users manual to illustrate the strengths and capabilities of developing techniques. The areas of application of this technique are in biomedicine, medicine, life sciences, nanotechnology and materials sciences.

During the last decade there has been a renewed interest in under standing from a fundamental point of view the gasification of carbon. Basi cally there are two major issues in controlling the reactivity of carbon: i) reduction of the gasification rate of carbon materials in hostile environment ii) increase of the gasification rate in order to utilize carbonaceous compounds more effectively. Although these two objectives look somewhat contradictory, they are part of the general topics of understanding gasification reactivity of carbon. Refractory applications of carbon in furnace linings, seals and vanes, as well as the use of carbon-carbon or carbon-ceramic composites in struc tures able to withstand corrosion at high temperature require a better understanding of the fundamentals involved in carbon-oxidizing gas (02' CO, H 0) reactions. Furthermore a great interest of aluminium producers 2 2 is 10 extending the lifetime of carbon electrodes in alumina electrolysis which primarily depends on reducing their consumption rates by air or carbon dioxide. Proper control of gasification reactions is also of prime importance in manufacturing carbonaceous adsorbents like granular activated carbon clothes of high adsorption characteristics. The balance between increase of porosity and decrease in mechanical strength during activation is critical for developing new porous types of carbon materials in particular for carbon clothes and this can only be achieved by a careful control of the gasification reaction."

The accurate, absolute, and non-destructive measurement of residual stress fields within metallic, ceramic, and composite engineering components has been one of the major problems facing engineers for many years, and so the extension of X-ray methods to the use of neutrons represents a major advance. The technique utilizes the unique penetrating power of the neutron into most engineering materials, combined with the sensitivity of diffraction, to measure the separation of lattice planes within grains of polycrystalline engineering materials, thus providing an internal strain gauge. The strain is then converted to stress using calibrated elastic constants. It was just over ten years ago that the initial neutron diffraction measurements of residual stress were carried out, and during the ensuing decade measurements have commenced at most steady state reactors and pulsed sources around the world. So swift has been the development of the field that, in addition to fundamental scientific studies, commercial measurements have been made on industrial components for several years now. The use of neutrons is ideally suited to the determination of triaxial macrostress tensors, macrostress gradients, and microstresses in composites and multiphase alloys as well as deformed, plastically anisotropic metals and alloys. To date, it has been used to investigate welded and heat-treated industrial components, to characterize composites, to study the response of material under applied loads, to calibrate more portable methods such as ultrasonics, and to verify computer modelling calculations of residual and applied stress.

Low dielectric constant materials are an important component of microelectronic devices. This comprehensive book covers the latest low-dielectric-constant (low-k) materials technology, thin film materials characterization, integration and reliability for back-end interconnects and packaging applications in microelectronics. Highly informative contributions from leading academic and industrial laboratories provide comprehensive information about materials technologies for < 0.18 um process technology. Topics include: Organic dielectric materials, Inorganic dielectric materials, Composite dielectric materials, Metrology and characterization techniques, Integration, Reliability. This volume will be an invaluable resource for professionals, scientists, researchers and graduate students involved in dielectric technology development, materials science, polymer science, and semiconductor devices and processing.

Adopting an interdisciplinary approach to the chemistry and physics of materials, their biocompatibility, and the consequences of implantation of such devices into the human body, this text introduces readers to the principles of polymer science and the study of metals, ceramics and composites, and also to the basic biology required to understand the nature of the host-transplant interface. Topics covered include the macromolecular components of cells and tissues, self-assembly processes, biological cascade systems, microscopic structure of cells and tissues, immunology, transplantation biology, and the pathobiology of wound healing. The materials science section includes the structures and properties of polymers, metals, ceramics and composites, and the processes for forming materials as well as the pathobiology of devices. The final two chapters deal with tissue engineering and the relations between the biology of cells and tissue transplantation, and the engineering of tissue replacements using passaged cells.

Materials metrology is the measurement science used for determining materials property data. An essential element is the symbiosis between the understanding of materials behaviour and the development of suit- able measurement techniques which, through the provision of stand- ards, enable design engineers and plant operators to acquire materials data of appropriate precision. This book is concerned only with those aspects of materials metrology and standards that relate to the design and performance in service ofstructuresand consumerproducts. Itdoes not consider their important role in the processing ofmaterials. Theeditorsare grateful for thecommitmentand patience oftheexperts who contributed the various chapters. In addition, help from staffin the Division ofMaterials Metrology, National Physical Laboratory,inassist- ing with the task of refereeing the chapters is gratefully acknowledged. The production of this book was carried out as part of the Materials Measurement Programme of underpinning research financed by the United Kingdom Department ofTrade and Industry. Brian F. Dyson Malcolm S. Loveday MarkG. Gee Division of Materials Metrology National Physical Laboratory Teddington, TWll OLW UK CHAPTER 1 Materials metrology and standards: an introduction B. F. Dyson, M. S. Loveday and M. G. Gee 1. 1 MATERIALS ASPECTS OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN Knowledge concerning the behaviour of materials has always been vital for the success of manufactured products, but never more so than at the present time.

Polymeric products are used widely in the construction industry, because they offer a range of desirable performance properties not available from traditional materials. Development of these products continues in a number of major research and development programmes within the construction materials sector, aimed at improving the performance, durability and applicational properties of these materials. It seems certain that their use will increase as their overall performance is developed and as the industry becomes more familiar with the techniques required to apply these materials and the benefits they offer. The purpose of this book is to familiarise the reader with the range of thermosetting polymeric materials available for construction applications, and to provide sound information on the properties and applications of these important materials. Professional engineers involved in the specification, application and testing of these materials will find this book a compact, authoritative and comprehensive source of information on these materials. Chemists and technologists involved in developing new or improved formulations will find in this book much to inform their work, particularly in the important area of applicational properties.

* Metivier is an expert in the field of pdes/math physics, with a particular emphasis on shock waves. * New monograph focuses on mathematical methods, models, and applications of boundary layers, present in many problems of physics, engineering, fluid mechanics. * Metivier has good Birkhauser track record: one of the main authors of "Advances in the Theory of Shock Waves" (Freistuehler/Szepessy, eds, 4187-4). * Manuscript endorsed by N. Bellomo, MSSET series editor...should be a good sell to members of MSSET community, who by-in-large are based in Europe. * Included are self-contained introductions to different topics such as hyperbolic boundary value problems, parabolic systems, WKB methods, construction of profiles, introduction to the theory of Evans' functions, and energy methods with Kreiss' symmetrizers.

Spectroscopy of Defects in Organic Crystals presents a masterly summary of the widespread and voluminous literature on the subject, presenting theoretical and experimental investigations of electron and vibronic optical spectra of organic crystals. Electronic states of defects combine to form crystal near-to-band and band levels. These are discrete states in the vicinity of exciton bands, surface and dislocational excitons, etc. Some studies have expressed dissimilar or even conflicting opinions about the nature of observed phenomena. In the choice of the material, preference has been given to phenomena which have received a theoretical interpretation. Some attention is paid to observations which are not completely understood and also to effects predicted but not yet confirmed. The monograph will be useful for scientists as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students of solid state physics.

Ordered intermetallics constitute a unique class of metallic materials which may be developed as new-generation materials for structural use at high temperatures in hostile environments. At present, there is a worldwide interest in intermetallics, and extensive efforts have been devoted to intermetallic research and development in the U.S., Japan, European countries, and other nations. As a result, significant advances have been made in all areas of intermetallic research. This NATO Advanced Workshop on ordered intermetallics (1) reviews the recent progress, and (2) assesses the future direction of intermetallic research in the areas of electronic structure and phase stability, deformation and fracture, and high-temperature properties. The book is divided into six parts: (1) Electronic Structure and Phase Stability; (2) Deformation and Dislocation Structures; (3) Ductility and Fracture; (4) Kinetic Processes and Creep Behavior; (5) Research Programs and Highlights; and (6) Assessment of Current Research and Recommendation for Future Work. The first four parts review the recent advances in the three focus areas. The fifth part provides highlights of the intermetallic research under major programs and in different institutes and countries. The last part provides a forum for the discussion of research areas for future studies.

This book is t~e fifth in aseries of scientific textbooks designed to cover advances in selected research fields from a basic and general view point. The reader is taken carefully but rapidly through the introductory material in order that t~e significance of recent developments can be understood with only limited initial knowledge. The inclusion in the Appendix of the abstracts of many of the more important papers in the field provides further assistance for the non-specialist, and acts as aspringboard to supplementary reading for those who wish to consult the original liter ature. Surface analysis has been the subject of numerous books and review articles, and the fundamental scientific principles of t~e more popular techniques are now reasonably weIl established. This book is concerned with the very powerful techniques of Auger electron and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AES and XPS), with an emphasis on how they may be performed as part of a modern analytical facility. Since the development of AES and XPS in the late 1960s and early 1970s there have been great strides forward in the sensitivities and resolutions of the instrumentation. Simultaneously, these spectroscopies have undergone a veritable explosion, both in their acceptance alongside more routine ana1ytical techniques and in the range of problems and materials to which they are applied. As a result, many researchers in industry and in academia now come into contact with AES and XPS not as specialists, but as users.

Electroactive polymers have been the object of increasing academic and industrial interest and in the past ten to fifteen years substantial progress has been achieved in the development and the characterization of this important new class of conducting materials. These materials are usually classified in two large groups, according to the mode of their electric transport. One group includes polymers having transport almost exclusively of the ionic type and they are often called 'polymer electrolytes' or, in a broader way, 'polymer ionics'. The other group includes polymeric materials where the transport mechanism is mainly electronic in nature and which are commonly termed 'conducting polymers'. Ionically conducting polymers or polymer ionics may be typically described as polar macromolecular solids in which one or more of a wide range of salts has been dissolved. The most classic example is the combina tion of poly(ethylene oxide), PEO, and lithium salts, LiX. These PEO-LiX polymer ionics were first described and proposed for applications just over ten years ago. The practical relevance of these new materials was im mediately recognized and in the course of a few years the field expanded tremendously with the involvement of many academic and industrial lab oratories. Following this diversified research activity, the ionic transport mechanism in polymer ionics was soon established and this has led to the development of new host polymers of various types, new salts and advanced polymer architectures which have enabled room temperature conductivity to be raised by several orders of magnitude."

This monograph presents theoretical and experimental studies of flows of elastic liquids. Falling into this category are particularly the melts and concentrated solutions of such flexible-chain polymers as polyethylene, polyisobutylene and polypropylene, all of which are widely used in polymer processing. These polydisperse polymers vary greatly, from batch to batch, in their mechanical properties and 20% variation in a property is believed to be good enough. l 7 All recent books - devoted to the rheology of polymers do not answer the question of which constitutive equations should be used for solving the fluid mechanic problems of polymer processing in the usual case of an appreciable nonlinear region of deformation where nonlinear effects of shear and extensional elasticity are very important. Viscoelastic constitut ive equations cited commonly (see, e.g. Refs 5 and 6) do not describe simultaneously even the simplest cases of deformations, viz. simple shear and uniaxial extension. Moreover, some of them are internally inconsist ent and sometimes display highly unstable behaviour in simple flows without any fundamental reasons. Even more respected molecular ap free from these defects."

Although polypropylene has been marketed since the 1950s, research and development in this area is still vigorous. The consumption of polypropylene over the years has been relatively high, mainly due to the steady improvement of its property profile. Polypropylene: Structures, Blends and Composites, in three separate volumes, reflects on the key factors which have contributed to the success of polypropylene, dealing with all aspects of structure-performance relationships relevant to thermoplastic polymers and related composites. Volume 1, Structure and Morphology, deals with polymorphism in polypropylene homo- and copolymers, where molecular and supermolecular structures are covered, and the processing-induced structure development of polypropylene, showing the interrelation between the processing-induced morphology and mechanical performance. Volume 2, Copolymers and Blends, contains comprehensive surveys of the nucleation and crystallisation behaviour of the related systems. It includes the development of morphology and its effects on rheological and mechanical properties of polypropylene-based alloys and blends and a review of polypropylene-based thermoplastic elastomers. Volume 3, Composites, gives a comprehensive overview of filled and reinforced systems with polypropylene as a matrix material, with the main emphasis on processing-structure-property-interrelationships. Chapters cover all aspects of particulate filled, chopped fibre-, fibre mat- and continuous fibre-reinforced composites. Interfacial phenomena, such as adhesion, wetting and interfacial crystallisation, are also included as important aspects of this subject.

Organic solids exhibit a wide range of electrical and related properties. They occur as crystals, glasses, polymers and thin films; they may be insulators, semiconductors, conductors or superconductors; and they may show luminescence, nonlinear optical response, and complex dynamical behaviour. The book provides a broad survey of this area, written by international experts, one third being drawn from Eastern Europe. Electrical, optical, spectroscopic and structural aspects are all treated in a way that gives an excellent introduction to current themes in this highly interdisciplinary and practically important area. The coverage is especially strong in the areas where electrical and optical properties overlap, such as photoconductivity, electroluminescence, electroabsorption, electro-optics and photorefraction.

As Directors of this NATO Workshop we welcome this opportunity to record formally our thanks to the NATO Scientific Affairs Division for making our meeting possible through generous financial support and encouragement. This meeting had two purposes: the first obvious one because we have collected key scientists from East and West together to discuss the latest developments in the design against fatigue for structures and components. The second is less obvious but perhaps in the longer term more important; that is the building of bridges between East and West Europe, bridges cemented in the first place by personal friendship between scientists. Fatigue is the process by which structures subjected to cyclical loads deteriorate. The advent of the industrial revolution and in particular the spread of railways caused this phenomena to be recognised and studied some 150 years ago. Despite intensive efforts over the years and despite a huge increase in our theoretical and practical understanding offatigue, failures still occur causing economic disruption and even loss of life. Some of the reasons lying behind this apparent failure to apply advanced knowledge to everyday engineering were explored during this Workshop. Economic pressures to extend the lives of existing plant are becoming more intense. Therefore of vital importance is the generation of knowledge used to assess the performance of existing structures and machines and to produce guidance on their continued safe operation.

In an area as vast and important as rheology, it is essential that the experimentalist understands the underlying theories and shortcomings of the measurement technique used, that they are aware of the likely microstructure of the fluid under study and that from this they can appreciate how the fluid and the measuring system interact with each other. This major handbook, written by an international group of experts in the range of rheological techniques, presents the state of the art in rheological measurement, and concentrates on the techniques and underlying physical principles. The second edition, fully revised and updated to include new techniques is invaluable to polymer and materials scientists, engineers and technologists, and anyone else making rheological measurements on materials whether they be polymeric, biological, slurries, food or other complex fluids.

This introductory text develops the fundamental physics of the behavior of granular materials. It covers the basic properties of flow, friction, and fluidization of uniform granular materials; discusses mixing and segregation of heterogeneous materials (the famous "brazil-nut problem"); and concludes with an introduction to numerical models. The presentation begins with simple experiments and uses their results to build concepts and theorems about materials whose behavior is often quite counter-intuitive; presenting in a unified way the background needed to understand current work in the field. Developed for students at the University of Paris, the text will be suitable for advanced undergraduates and beginning graduates; while also being of interest to researchers and engineers just entering the field.

This book gives a complete account of electron momentum spectroscopy to date. It describes in detail the construction of spectrometers and the acquisition and reduction of cross-section data, explaining the quantum theory of the reaction and giving experimental verification.

Foams are gas filled integral structures in which the gas is finely dispersed throughout acontinuouslyconnected solid phase. The bulk density is usually substantially lower than that of the solid component, and for the foams which form the focus for this book the volume fraction of the gas phase is considerably greater than 0.5 and in most instances in excess of 0.9. Many ofthe materials encountered in every day experience, such as bread, plants and trees, structural materials for buildings, comfort materials for domestic and automotive seating, shock absorbers or car bumpers and materials for noise control, have one thing in common - the cellular nature of their physical structure. Whyare thesestructuressoimportantin the naturaland man-made world? The reasons are both technical and commercial. From a technical viewpoint cellular materials offer: 1. high specific stiffness and strength - making them suitable for structural applications; 2. closeto idealenergymanagement - hencetheir useinthermalandacoustic insulation, vibration damping, acoustic absorption and shock mitigation; and 3. comfort - hence their use for domestic and automotive seating.

The birth of this monograph is partly due to the persistent efforts of the General Editor, Dr. Klaus Timmerhaus, to persuade the authors that they encapsulate their forty or fifty years of struggle with the thermal properties of materials into a book before they either expired or became totally senile. We recognize his wisdom in wanting a monograph which includes the closely linked properties of heat capacity and thermal expansion, to which we have added a little 'cement' in the form of elastic moduli. There seems to be a dearth of practitioners in these areas, particularly among physics postgraduate students, sometimes temporarily alleviated when a new generation of exciting materials are found, be they heavy fermion compounds, high temperature superconductors, or fullerenes. And yet the needs of the space industry, telecommunications, energy conservation, astronomy, medical imaging, etc. , place demands for more data and understanding of these properties for all classes of materials - metals, polymers, glasses, ceramics, and mixtures thereof. There have been many useful books, including Specific Heats at Low Tempera tures by E. S. Raja Gopal (1966) in this Plenum Cryogenic Monograph Series, but few if any that covered these related topics in one book in a fashion designed to help the cryogenic engineer and cryophysicist. We hope that the introductory chapter will widen the horizons of many without a solid state background but with a general interest in physics and materials.