I express my sincere gratitude to NATO Science Committee for granting me the financial award to organize and direct the Advanced Research Workshop on "MULTILAYERED and FIBRE-REINFORCED COMPOSITES: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS" that was held in Kiev, Ukraine, during the period of June 2 - 6, 1997, in collaboration with Professor S. A. Firstov of the Frantsevich Institute for Problems of Materials Science, National Academy of Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine. In this context I wish to convey special thanks to Dr. J. A. Raussell-Colom, NATO Programme Director for Priority Area on High Technology, for his kind efforts and continuous guidance in the course of organizing the Workshop. I appreciate sincerely the opportunity of working closely with Professor Firstov and acknowledge with deep gratitude his outstanding contribution in co-directing the Workshop. I wish to express my special thanks to Dr. N. Orlovskaya of the Frantsevich Institute, for her outstanding contribution towards both the organization and conduct of the Workshop. I wish to convey my sincere thanks to Professor V. V. Skorohord, Deputy Director of the Frantsevich Institute, on behalf of the same Institute, for hosting the Workshop and welcoming the participants to l{iev. The very kind efforts of the members of the Scientific Advisory Committee, the Local Organizing Committee and the Staff of the Frantsevich Institute towards the organization and conduct of the Workshop, are gratefully appreciated. I convey my full indebtedness to all researchers who participated in the Workshop."

Computer technology in the past fifteen years has essentially rev olutionized engineering education. Complex systems involving coupled mass transport and flow have yielded to numerical analysis even for relatively complex geometries. The application of such technology together with advances in applied physical chemistry have justified a general updating of the field of heterogeneous kinetics in extractive metallurgy. This book is an attempt to cover significant areas of extrac tive metallurgy from the viewpoint of heterogeneous kinetics. Kinetic studies serve to elucidate fundamental mechanisms of reac tions and to provide data for engineering applications, including improved ability to scale processes up from bench to pilot plant. The general theme of this book is the latter-the scale-up. The practicing engineer is faced with problems of changes of order of magnitude in reactor size. We hope that the fundamentals of heterogeneous kinetics will provide increasing ability for such scale-up efforts. Although ther modynamics is important in defining potential reaction paths and the end products, kinetic limitations involving molecular reactions, mass trans port, or heat flow normally influence ultimate rates of production. For this reason, rate processes in the general field of extractive metallurgy have been emphasized in this book."

In our earlier monograph "Mlcrohardness of Metals" [1], published in 1962, we attempted to correlate a variety of investigations scattered throughout a number of journals with the gen- eral theme of solving problems of physicochemical analysis and metallography by microhard- ness measurements. The publication of "Microhardness of Metals" promoted the widespread use of this tech- nique in studying physicochemical phenomena in various materials. In recent years the micro- hardness method has been used most extensively in studying semiconducting materials, and this has necessitated the revision of the monograph with the aim of incorporating new experi- mental data relating to both metals and semiconductors. The greater proportion of the material presented in this book reflects the authors' own investigations. other investtgations associated with the use of the microhardness method in tOO physicochemical analysis of metallic and semiconducting systems are also taken into account. The authors are extremely indebted to Academician G. G. Urazov for his great interest in this work at its inception and for a number of valuable comments regarding the possibility of using the microhardness technique in physicochemical analysis. Sincere thanks are extended to Academician A. A. Bochvar and Professors A. N. Krestov- nikov, M. M. Khrushchov, M. V. Mal'tsev, M. V. Zakharov, and I. I. Novikov for their interest in these investigations.

This book is designed for the chemist, formulator, student, teacher, forensic scientist, or others who wish to investigate the composition of polymeric materials. Theinformationwithinthesepagesisintendedtoarmthereaderwiththenecessary workingknowledgetoanalyze,characterize, anddeformulatematerials. ThestructureoftheContentsisintendedtoassistthereaderinquicklylocating the subject of interest and proceed to it with a minimum of expended time and effort. The Contents provides an outline of major topics and relevant materials char- terizedforthereader'sconvenience. Anintroductiontoanalysisanddeformulation is provided in Chapter 1 to acquaint the reader with analytical methods and their applications. Extensive references are provided as additional sources ofinfor- tion. All tables arelocatedin theAppendix, beginning onp. 235. GUIDE FOR USE This is a practical book structured to efficiently use the reader's time with a minimum effort of searching for entries and information by following these brief instructions: 1. Searchthe Contents and/orIndex fora subject withinthe text. 2. Analysis/deformulation principles are discussed at the outset to familiarize the reader with analysis methods and instruments; followed by formu- tions, materials, and analysis ofpaint, plastics, adhesives, and inks; and finally reformulation methods to test the results of analysis. 3. Materials and a wide assortment of formulations are discussed within the text by chapter/section number. 4. Materials are referred toby various names (trivial, trade, and scientific), and these are listed in tables and cross-referenced to aid the reader.

This and its companion Volume 2 chronicle the proceedings of the First Technical Conference on Polyimides: Synthesis, Char acterization and Applications held under the auspices of the Mid Hudson Section of the Society of Plastics Engineers at Ellenville, New York, November 10-12, 1982. In the last decade or so there has been an accelerated interest in the use of polyimides for a variety of applications in a number of widely differing technologies. The applications of polyimides range from aerospace to microelectronics to medical field, and this is attributed to the fact that polyimides offer certain desirable traits, inter alia, high temperature stability. Polyimides are used as organic insulators, as adhesives, as coat ings, in composites, just to name a few of their uses. Even a casual search of the literature will underscore the importance of this class of materials and the high tempo of R&D activity taking place in the area of polyimides. So it was deemed that a conference on polyimides was both timely and needed. This conference was designed to provide a forum for discussion of various ramifications of polyimides, to bring together scientists and technologists interested in all aspects of polyimides and thus to provide an opportunity for cross-pollination of ideas, and to highlight areas which needed further and intensi fied R&D efforts. If the comments from the attendees are a baro meter of the success of a conference, then this event was highly successful and fulfilled amply its stated objectives.

Cryogenics is an emerging technology filled with promises. Many cryogenic systems demand the use of nonmetallics and composites for adequate or increased performance. Thermal and electrical insulations, potting for superconducting magnets' mechanical sta bility, and composite structures appear to be some of the most significant applications. Research on nonmetallics at cryogenic temperatures has not progressed to the degree of research on metals. Nor can room temperature research be extrapolated to low tempera tures; most polymers undergo a phase transformation to the glassy state below room temperature. Research by producers, for the most part, has not been prac tical, because, except for LNG applications, the market for large material sales is not imminent. There are, however, many government stimulated developmental programs. Research on nonmetallics thus is dictated by development project needs, which require studies orien ted toward prototype hardware and specific objectives. As a result, research continuity suffers. Under these conditions, periodic topical conferences on this subject are needed. Industry and uni versity studies must be encouraged. Designers and project research material specialists need to exchange experiences and data. Low temperature-oriented research groups, such as the National Bureau of Standards and the Institute for Technical Physics - Karlsruhe, must contribute by assisting with fundamentals, interpreting proj ect data, and contributing to project programs through their materials research."

The papers collected in this book were presented to the second and third annual confer ences on the metallography, physical chemistry, and physics of superconductors which took place in May of 1965 and 1966. These annual conferences, held at the A. A. Baikov Institute of Metallurgy of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, have quickly become part of the scientific life of the country, and are already a tradition. More than thirty papers were read at each con ference, and between 250 and 300 representatives of a large number of organizations were pre sent at each conference. There was a distinguished array of scientific organizations taking part in the work of these conferences, which discussed current problems in the structure (constitution) and pro perties of superconductors, and ways of improving their characteristics so as to ensure the successful use of these materials in various new fields of technology. In the period which has passed since the first conference (May 1964), scientific research into superconducting systems and compounds has undergone substantial further development. A number of diagrams relating the composition to the superconducting properties have been studiedj new superconducting alloys have been developed together with methods of processing them and making them into various objects. The phase diagrams of the most promising super conducting systems (Nb-Sn, V-Ga, Nb-Zr, and Nb-Ti) have been investigated moreprecisely.

In this book, the fundamentals of magnetism are treated, starting at an introductory level. The origin of magnetic moments, the response to an applied magnetic field, and the various interactions giving rise to different types of magnetic ordering in solids are presented and many examples are given. Crystalline-electric-field effects are treated at a level that is sufficient to provide the basic knowledge necessary in understanding the properties of materials in which these effects play a role. Itinerant-electron magnetism is presented on a similar basis. Particular attention has been given to magnetocrystalline magnetic anisotropy and the magnetocaloric effect. Also, the usual techniques for magnetic measurements are presented. About half of the book is devoted to magnetic materials and the properties that make them suitable for numerous applications. The state of the art is presented of permanent magnets, high-density recording materials, soft-magnetic materials, Invar alloys and magnetostrictive materials. Many references are given.

This book contains nineteen of the twenty papers which were pre sented at the conference on "Heterogeneous Kinetics at Elevated Tem peratures" held on September 8, 9 and 10, 1969 at the University of Pennsylvania. The papers are concerned primarily with the kinetics of inter facial reactions between the gaseous phase and a condensed phase and include pertinent topics in microscopic and macroscopic trans~ port phenomena. Several of the more recent advances in experimen tal techniques are covered, since progress in the interpretation of kinetic phenomena seems to be intimately connected with advances in experimental method. The discussion after each paper, as well as the general discussion at the end of the meeting, have been included in a strictly edited version; the philosophy being to include only those topics and questions which were not dealt with in the final versions of the manuscripts. The Chairmen (editors) would like to express their thanks to Professor C. B. Alcock for vigorously leading the final discussion period and for his entertaining after-dinner remarks on the evening of the conference banquet. The Chairmen would also like to place on record their indeptedness to Dr. D. R. Gaskell who, with the assistance of Mr. P. C. Shumaker, was largely responsible for the efficient technical arrangements of the meeting; to Dr. P. Entner and the willing group of graduate students for recording the dis cussions and for other organizational assistance; to Miss L.

We present an overview of the theoretical background and experimental re sults in the rapidly developing field of semiconductor quantum dots - systems 8 6 of dimensions as small as 10- -10- m (quasi-zero-dimensional) that contain a small and controllable number (1-1000) of electrons. The electronic structure of quantum dots, including the energy quan tization of the single-particle states (due to spatial confinement) and the evolution of these (Fock-Darwin) states in an increasing external magnetic field, is described. The properties of many-electron systems confined in a dot are also studied. This includes the separation of the center-of-mass mo tion for the parabolic confining potential (and hence the insensitivity of the transitions under far infrared radiation to the Coulomb interactions and the number of particles - the generalized Kohn theorem) and the effects due to Coulomb interactions (formation of the incompressible magic states at high magnetic fields and their relation to composite jermions), and finally the spin-orbit interactions. In addition, the excitonic properties of quantum dots are discussed, including the energy levels and the spectral function of a single exciton, the relaxation of confined carriers, the metastable states and their effect on the photoluminescence spectrum, the interaction of an exciton with carriers, and exciton condensation. The theoretical part of this work, which is based largely on original re sults obtained by the authors, has been supplemented with descriptions of various methods of creating quantum-dot structures."

The Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center of Water town, Massachusetts in cooperation with the Materials Science Group of the Department of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science of Syracuse University has conducted the Sagamore Army Materials Research Conference since 1954. The main purpose of these conferences has been to gather together over 150 scientists and engineers from academic institutions, industry and government who are uniquely qualified to explore in depth a subject of importance to the Department of Defense, the Army and the scientific community. This volume, RISK AND FAILURE ANALYSIS FOR IMPROVED PERFORMANCE AND RELIABILITY, addresses the areas of Techniques of Failure Analysis, Risk and Failure Analysis for Design Against Fracture, Risk and Failure Analysis for Design Against Fatigue, Elevated Temperature Effects, Environmental Effects, Systems Approach to Production Reliability Integration and Outlook - Emerging Needs and Techniques. We wish to acknowledge the dedicated assistance of Joseph M. Bernier of the Army Materials and Mechanics Research Center and Helen Brown DeMascio of Syracuse University throughout the stages of the conference planning and finally the publication of this book is deeply appreciated."

This volume constitutes the Proceedings of the November 7-9, 1977 Conference on PROCESSING OF CRYSTALLINE CERAMICS, held at North Carolina State University in Raleigh. It was the Fourteenth in a series of "University Conferences on Ceramic Science" initiated in 1964 and still coordinated by a founding group of four ceramic related institutions, of which North Carolina State University is a charter member, along with the University of California at Berkeley, Notre Dame University, and the New York State College of Ceramics at Alfred University. In addition, two other ceramic-oriented schools, the University of Florida and Case-Western Reserve University, have also hosted Conferences in the series. These research-oriented conferences, each uniquely concerned with a timely ceramic theme, have been well attended by audiences which typically were both inter national and interdisciplinary in character; their published Proceedings have been well received and are frequently cited. This three day conference was concerned with (a) scientific aspects of all process steps which must be combined and controlled effectively and sequentially in producing crystalline ceramics (both oxides and nonoxides), and (b) utilization of these principles in developing processes for several classes of advanced ceramics critical to present and future technology."

This book presents an account of the course "Optical Properties of Excited States in Solids" held in Erice, Italy, from June 16 to 3D, 1991. This meeting was organized by the International School of Atomic and Molecular Spectroscopy of the "Ettore Majorana" Centre for Scientific Culture. The purpose of this course was to present physical models, mathematical formalisms and experimental techniques relevant to the optical properties of excited states in solids. Some active physical species, such as ions or radicals, could survive indefinitely if they were completely 'isolated in space. Other active species, such as excited molecular and solid-state systems, are inherently unstable, even in isolation, due to the spontaneous mechanisms that may convert their excitation energies into radiation or heat. Physical parameters that may be used to characterize these excited systems are the localization or delocalization, and the coherence or incoherence, of their state excitations. In solids the excited states, whether they are localized (as for impurities in insulators) or delocalized (as they may occur in semiconductors), are relevant in several regards. Their de-excitation is extremely sensitive to the nature of the excitations of the systems, and a study of the de-excitation processes can yield a variety of information. For example, the excited states may represent the initial condition of the onset of such processes as Stokes-shifted emission, hot luminescence, symmetry-dependent Jahn-Teller and scattering processes, tunneling processes, energy transfer to like and unlike centers, superradiance, coherent radiation, and excited state absorption.

Nanoindentation, Third Edition gives a detailed account of the most up-to-date research in this important field of materials testing. As in previous editions, extensive theoretical treatments are provided and explained in a clear and consistent manner that will satisfy both experienced and novice scientists and engineers. Additionally, numerous examples of the applications of the technique are provided directly from manufacturers of nanoindentation instruments. A helpful series of appendices provides essential reference information that includes a list of frequently asked questions. The new edition has been restructured to provide results of the latest research and developments in the field of mechanical testing while retaining the essential background and introductory, but authoritative nature, of the previous editions. The new edition also expands on the instrumentation and applications chapters by including material sourced direct from the instrument manufacturers in this field. Aimed at graduate student level, this book is designed to fill a need associated with the use of nanoindentation as a quantitative test method for mechanical properties of small volumes of materials.

The international seminar "Material Behavior and Physical Chemistry in Liquid Metal Systems" was organized by the Institute of Materials and Solid State Research of the Karlsruhe Nuclear Research Center (Karlsruhe, Federal Republic of Germany). The seminar was held at the Nuclear Engineering School of the center on March 24-26, 1981. The aim of the seminar was to give metallurgists, chemists,. and physicists working in different areas of the science and technology of liquid metals an opportunity to discuss the basic work and the need for further work in this field. Since the seminar was held near one of the laboratories which for the last few years has been engaged in liquid alkali metal studies, partic ipants also had an opportunity to observe modern equipment for liquid alkali metal research. Interest in the application of liquid metals as working fluids in energy production, conversion, and storage is increasing. The technology has already demonstrated its high standards, which make possible the operation of large sodium-cooled fast reactors. Past conferences have shown, however, that there is still a lack of basic knowledge and understanding. Therefore, the aim of the present seminar was to discuss basic work in detail, and most of the papers contributed to this objective.

Awarenes s of the great significance of surface consti- tution in understanding the behavior and perforITlance of ITlaterials has been growing in proportion to the ITleans which have becoITle available for surface study. Recent years have seen iITlportant advances in analytical tools and ITlethods; their applications to date will certainly suggest ITlany other fruitful lines of investigation. The Conference "Surfaces and Interfaces of Glass and CeraITlics" held at the New York State College of CeraITlics at Alfred University under the sponsorship of the U. S. ArITly Research Office, DurhaITl, and the National Aeronautics and Space AdITlinistration, in August 1973, was tenth in the Uni- versity Series in CeraITlic Science, held in rotation aITlong North Carolina State University, the University of California at Berkeley, the University of Notre DaITle and Alfred Uni- versity. The chapters are arranged in order of their particular eITlphasis beginning with those principally concerned with analytical ITlethods. Chapters dealing with friction and wear follow, highly topical in the present-day concern with effi- cient use of energy in finishing processes, on the one hand, and the avoidance of preITlature failure by frictional daITlage to ITloving parts on the other. Surface reactions are then considered, including the iITlportant questions of physiological interactions with ceraITlic candidates for prosthetic applica- tions. Material-ITlaterial interfaces and transition zones are discussed through exaITlples which include grain bound- aries in ceraITlics as well as interfaces aITlong various solid, liquid and gaseous phases.

For the past three decades the mechanics of structured media, frequently called micromechanics, has been recognized as an important new approach in the analysis of material behaviour. This book discusses the modern use of mathematical analysis to the stochastic mechanics of discrete media. The theoretical study is therefore based on set and measure theory and the application of point processes.

The International Conference on Fracture Mechanics Technology Applied to Material Evaluation and Structure Design was held in Melbourne, Australia, from August 10 to 13, 1982. It was sponsored jointly by the Australian Fracture Group and Institute of Fracture and Solid Mechanics at Lehigh University. Pro fessor G. C. Sih of Lehigh University, Drs. N. E. Ryan and R. Jones of Aeronau tical Research Laboratories served as Co-Chairmen. They initiated the organiza tion of this international event to provide an opportunity for the practitioners, engineers and interested individuals to present and discuss recent advances in the evaluation of material and structure damage originating from defects or cracks. Particular emphases were placed on applying the fracture mechanics tech nology for assessing interactions between material properties, design and opera tional requirements. It is timely to hold such a Conference in Australia as she embarks on technology extensive industries where safeguarding structures from pre mature and unexpected failure is essential from both the technical and economical points. view The application of system-type approach to failure control owes much of its success to fracture mechanics. It is now generally accepted that the discipline, when properly implemented, provides a sound engineering basis for accounting in teractions between material properties, design, fabrication, inspection and op erational requirements. The approach offers effective solutions for design and maintenance of large-scale energy generation plants, mining machineries, oil ex ploration and retrieval equipments, land, sea and air transport vehicles."

This volume constitutes the written proceedings of the Third International Conference on Materials SCience, held under the sponsorship of the Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei as the XIII summer course of the G. Donegani Foundation at Tremezzo, Italy, on September 4-15, 1972. The course of lectures was designed for scientists and engineers "d th a, wrking knowledge of electronic materials, who sought to extend their knowledge of the newest developments in the field. The rapid pace of research and exploratory development in electronic materials has led to a preSSing need for continuing awareness and assessment of new electronic materials, as well as renewal of information in the more traditional areas. Three classes of electronic materials were selected for the course. Semiconductors provide the foundation for solid state electronics and semiconductor devices represent the most sophisti cated and advanced application of materials science and engineering known to modern technology. Yet, the march of progress in semi conductors continues, unabated - new semiconductor materials are in the research stage, new process technology is being developed, and new devices are being conceived. The second class of materials dealt with in the course, magnetic alloys and insulators, also has a firm application base; for example, computer performance is often measured in terms of the size of the magnetic memory. The tailoring of materials to provide particular combinations of desired magnetic properties is an integral part of the development of the electronics, just as in the case of semiconductors."

Everything flows, so rheology is a universal science. Even if we set aside claims of such width, there can be no doubt of its importance in polymers. It joins with chemistry in the polymerisation step but polymer engineering is supreme in all the succeeding steps. This is the area concerned with the fabrication of the polymer into articles or components, with their design to meet the needs in service, and with the long and short term performance of the article or component. This is a typical area of professional engineering activity, but one as yet without its proper complement of professional engineers. An understanding of polymer rheology is the key to effective design and material plus process selection, to efficient fabrication, and to satisfactory service, yet few engineers make adequate use of what is known and understood in polymer rheology. Its importance in the flow processes of fabrication is obvious. Less obvious, but equally important, are the rheological phenomena which determine the in-service performance. There is a gap between the polymer rheologist and the polymer engineer which is damaging to both parties and which contributes to a less than satisfactory use of polymers in our society. It is important that this gap be filled and this book makes an attempt to do so. It presents an outline of what is known in a concise and logical fashion. It does this starting from first principles and with the minimum use of complex mathematics.

A number of significant changes have occurred in Advances in Solar Energy since Volume 1 appeared in 1982. The delays in publication of the second volume are the result of reorganization of the American Solar Energy Society, and the negotiation of a new publishing arrangement. Beginning with this volume, Advances is now published jointly by the Society and Plenum Press. The Editorial Board has been enlarged to be more representative of the different fields of solar energy conversion. Production of Advances is being expedited through the use of modern word processing equipment and the 'lEX typesetting-editing program. We have gone to a single-column format to ease the problems of presenting long equations, and we expect that the user of the volume will find it easy to read. The use of 'lEX will make last minute updates possible. The external appearance of the volume matches that of Volume 1. We expect that future volumes of this annual will be proceeding on schedule. We invite comments from users and correspondence from prospective authors of critical reviews. Karl W. Boer John A. Duffie CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 The Measurement of Solar Radiation Ronald Stewart, Daniel W. Spencer and Richard Perez 1.1 Abstract 1 1.2 Characteristics of Pyranometers ....................................... . 2 1.3 General Features of a Pyranometer ................................... . 3 1.3.1 Instrument Sensitivity 4 1.3.2 Response with Time 4 1.3.3 Sensitivity 4 1.3.4 Responsivity ................................................. .

The International Thermal Expansion Symposium was started in 1968 with the initiative of Messrs. R. K. Kirby and P. S. Gaa1. These Symposia cover the deve10pments and advances in theoretica1 and experimental studies of the thermal expansion of so lids and its relation to other re1ated properties, and provide a broad1y based forum for researchers active1y working in this fie1d to convene on a regular basis to exchange their ideas and experiences and report their findings and resu1ts. The Symposia have been se1f-perpetuating and are an examp1e of how a technica1 community with a common purpose can transcend the invisible artificia1 barriers between discip1ines and gather togeth- er in increasing numbers without the need of national publicity and continuing funding support, when they see something worthwhi1e going on. Of the first five Symposia on1y three pub1ished formal Pro- ceedings. However, effective with the Sixth Symposium in 1977 when our Center for Information and Numerica1 Data Analysis and Synthesis (CINDAS) of Purdue University became the permanent Spon- sor of the Symposia, a po1icy of pub1ishing formal Proceedings on a continuipg and uniform basis has been estab1ished. Thus, inc1ud- ing the present vo1ume, the fo110wing formal Proceedings have been pub1ished: Publisher Symposium Tit1e of Vo1ume and Year and Year 2nd SYMPOSIUM ON THERMAL EXPANSION OF American Institute SOLIDS, Journal of App1ied Physics, of Physics (1970) (1970) 41 (13), pp. 5043-5154 American Institute 3rd THERMAL EXPANSION - 1971 of Physics (1972) (1971) AlP Conference Proceedings No.

Included is a presentation of configurational forces within a classical context and a discussion of their use in areas as diverse as phase transitions and fracture.