The author integrates discussions of fractal geometry, surface modeling techniques, and applications to real world problems to provide a comprehensive, accessible overview of the field. His work will equip researchers with the basic tools for measurement and interpretation of data, stimulating more work on these problems and, perhaps, leading to an understanding of the reasons that Nature has adopted this geometry to shape much of our world.

The art and science of macromolecular architecture is based on synthesis, analysis, processing, and evaluation of physical properties of polymers. The growing specificity of available synthetic methods and the increasing refinement of analytical and physical analysis are gradually providing a deeper insight into structure-property relationships of polymers, upon which many applications can be based. This book deals with recent methods for polymer synthesis. Those that lead to specific structures have been selected especially. Background, mechanism scope and limitations, and illustrative procedures are given for each method. With this layout the editor hopes that the book will provide a practical guideline, for the synthetic polymer chemist in industry or at a university graduate school, on how to apply the methods in the design of new polymer structures. The editor is grateful to the authors not only for their contributions containing interesting new developments in polymer synthesis, but also for the way they have fitted their text into the general framework of the book. The elegant chemistry described in the following chapters will, it is hoped, inspire more organic chemists to apply their skills to polymer synthesis, where the beauty of organic chemistry in terms of structural control and reactivity may be even more apparent than in the low molecular field.

Many chemical processes that are important to society take place at boundaries between phases. Understanding these processes is critical in order for them to be subject to human control. The building of theoretical or computational models of them puts them into a theoretical framework in terms of which the behavior of the system can be understood on a detailed level. Theoretical and computational models are often capable of giving descriptions of interfacial phenomena that are more detailed, on a molecular level, than can be obtained through experimental observation. Advances in computer hardware have also made possible the treatment of larger and chemically more interesting systems. The study of interfacial phenomena is a multi-disciplinary endeavor which requires collaboration and communication among researchers in different fields and across different types of institutions. Because there are many important problems in this field much effort is being expended to understand these processes by industrial laboratories as well as by groups at universities. Our conference titled "Theoretical and Computational Approaches to Interface Phenomena" held at South Dakota State University, August 2-4, 1993 brought together over thirty scientists from industry and academia and three countries in the western hemisphere to discuss the modeling of interfacial phenomena.

The idea for this book came from discussions among participants in a symposium on biotechnical applications at the "Pacifichem 89" meeting in Honolulu. It was the majority opinion of this group that a volume dedicated to biotechnical and biomedical applications of PEG chemistry would enhance research and development in this area. Though the book was conceived at the Honolulu meeting, it is not a proceedings of this symposium. Several groups who did not participate in this meeting are repre sented in the book, and the book incorporates much work done after the meeting. The book does not include contributions in all related areas to which PEG chemistry has been applied. Several invited researchers declined to parti.:ipate, and there is not enough space in this single volume to properly cover all submissions. Chapter I-an overview of the topic-discusses in brief applications not given detailed coverage in specifically devoted chapters. The following topics are covered: introduction to and fundamental properties of PEG and derivatives in Chapters 1-3; separations using aqueous polymer two-phase partitioning in Chapters 4-6; PEG-proteins as catalysts in biotechnical applications in Chapters 7 and 8; biomedical applications of PEG-proteins in Chapters 9-13; PEG modified surfaces for a variety of biomedical and biotechnical applications in Chapters 14-20; and synthesis of new PEG derivatives in Chapters 21 and 22.

This book has its origins in the intensive short courses on scanning elec tron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis which have been taught annually at Lehigh University since 1972. In order to provide a textbook containing the materials presented in the original course, the lecturers collaborated to write the book Practical Scanning Electron Microscopy (PSEM), which was published by Plenum Press in 1975. The course con tinued to evolve and expand in the ensuing years, until the volume of material to be covered necessitated the development of separate intro ductory and advanced courses. In 1981 the lecturers undertook the project of rewriting the original textbook, producing the volume Scan ning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis (SEMXM). This vol ume contained substantial expansions of the treatment of such basic material as electron optics, image formation, energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometry, and qualitative and quantitative analysis. At the same time, a number of chapters, which had been included in the PSEM vol ume, including those on magnetic contrast and electron channeling con trast, had to be dropped for reasons of space. Moreover, these topics had naturally evolved into the basis of the advanced course. In addition, the evolution of the SEM and microanalysis fields had resulted in the devel opment of new topics, such as digital image processing, which by their nature became topics in the advanced course.

The chapters in this collection are from papers which were presented at a symposium on solid-state NMR of polymers. A two-part program on available NMR techniques applicable to solid polymer analysis was presented at the 3rd Chemical Congress of North American held in Toronto, Ontario, June 5-10,1988. The program was sponsored by the Division of Polymer Chemistry with support provided by the Division, its Industrial Sponsors, and the Donors of the Petroleum Research Fund administered by the American Chemical Society. Co-organizers included Professor Colin Fyfe of the University of British Columbia (Vancouver, Canada), Professor Hans Spiess of the Max Planck Institut fur Polymerforschung (Mainz, West Germany), and myself. The full-day tutorial, which was free to registered attendees, covered the range of topics. The purpose of the tutorial was to provide a basic introduction to the field so that newcomers to its present and future applications could develop sufficient understanding to learn effectively from the subsequent symposium. The first talk attempted to give listeners a feel for the way a novice spectroscopist can learn to use the various NMR techniques to explore his own areas of interest. Simple experiments can provide unique information about solid polymers that can be useful in interpreting synthetic results and in relating solid-state conformation, morphology and molecular motion to physical properties.

Polymers in Solution was written for scientists and engineers who have serious research interests in newer methods for characterization of polymer solutions, but who are not seasoned experts in the theoretical and experimental aspects of polymer science. In particular, it is assumed that the reader is not familiar with the development of theoretical notions in conformational statistics and the dynamics of chainlike molecules; how these two seemingly diverse theoretical topics are related; and the role played by polymer-solvent interactions. Chapter 1 thus presents background material that introduces most of the essential concepts, including some of the mathematical apparatus most commonly used in these areas of theory. This introduction is followed by five chapters that are more closely related to particular experimental techniques. These chapters introduce further theoretical notions as needed. Three of the chapters present con siderable detail on the experimental methods, while two other chapters deal more with the interpretation of experimental results in terms of current theories. Although neutron scattering has become an almost standard technique for the study of conformational properties of macromolecules in the solid state, there has been less emphasis on its application for characterization of polymer molecules in solution. Chapter 4 covers this growing area of application."

This proceedings volume, "Plastic Deformation of Ceramics," constitutes the papers of an international symposium held at Snowbird, Utah from August 7-12, 1994. It was attended by nearly 100 scientists and engineers from more than a dozen countries representing academia, national laboratories, and industry. Two previous conferences on this topic were held at The Pennsylvania State University in 1974 and 1983. Therefore, the last major international conference focusing on the deformation of ceramic materials was held more than a decade ago. Since the early 1980s, ceramic materials have progressed through an evolutionary period of development and advancement. They are now under consideration for applications in engineering structures. The contents of the previous conferences indicate that considerable effort was directed towards a basic understanding of deformation processes in covalently bonded or simple oxide ceramics. However, now, more than a decade later, the focus has completely shifted. In particular, the drive for more efficient heat engines has resulted in the development of silicon-based ceramics and composite ceramics. The discovery of high-temperature cupric oxide-based superconductors has created a plethora of interesting perovskite-Iike structured ceramics. Additionally, nanophase ceramics, ceramic thin films, and various forms of toughened ceramics have potential applications and, hence, their deformation has been investigated. Finally, new and exciting areas of research have attracted interest since 1983, including fatigue, nanoindentation techniques, and superplasticity.

This volume, SCIENCE OF SINTERING: NEW DIRECTIONS FOR MATERIALS PROCESSING AND MICROSTRUCTURAL CONTROL, contains the edited Proceedings of the Seventh World Round Table Conference on Sintering, held in Herceg-Novi, Yugoslavia, Aug. 28 - Sept. 1, 1989. It was organized by the International Institute for the Science of Sintering (IISS), headquartered in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. Every fourth year since 1969, the Institute has organized such a Round Table Conference on Sintering; each has taken place at some selected location within Yugoslavia. A separate series of IISS Topical Sintering Symposia (Summer Schools) have also been held at four year intervals, but they have been offset by about two years, so they occur between the main Conferences. As a rule, the Topical Sintering Symposia have been devoted to more specific topics and they also take place in different countries. The aim of these Conferences and their related "Summer Schools" has been to bring together scientists from all over the world who work in various fields of science and technology concerned with sintering and sintered materials. A total of seven IISS Conferences have been held over the period 1969-1989, and they have been supplemented by the four Topical Sintering Symposia held in Yugoslavia, Poland, India and Japan (in 1975, 1979, 1983 and 1987, respectively). This most recent five day Conference addressed the fundamental scientific background as well as the technological state-of-the-art pertinent to science of sintering and high technology sintered materials.

This text provides students as well as practitioners with a comprehensive introduction to the field of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and X-ray microanalysis. The authors emphasize the practical aspects of the techniques described. Topics discussed include user-controlled functions of scanning electron microscopes and x-ray spectrometers and the use of x-rays for qualitative and quantitative analysis. Separate chapters cover SEM sample preparation methods for hard materials, polymers, and biological specimens. In addition techniques for the elimination of charging in non-conducting specimens are detailed.

Much of this book was written during a sabbatical visit by J. C. H. S. to the Max Planck Institute in Stuttgart during 1991. We are therefore grateful to Professors M. Ruhle and A. Seeger for acting as hosts during this time, and to the Alexander von Humbolt Foundation for the Senior Scientist Award which made this visit possible. The Ph. D. work of one of us (J. M. Z. ) has also provided much of the background for the book, together with our recent papers with various collaborators. Of these, perhaps the most important stimulus to our work on convergent-beam electron diffraction resulted from a visit to the National Science Foundation's Electron Microscopy Facility at Arizona State University by Professor R. H(lJier in 1988, and from a return visit to Trondheim by J. C. H. S. in 1990. We are therefore particularly grateful to Professor H(lJier and his students and co-workers for their encouragement and collaboration. At ASU, we owe a particular debt of gratitude to Professor M. O'Keeffe for his encouragement. The depth of his under standing of crystal structures and his role as passionate skeptic have frequently been invaluable. Professor John Cowley has also been an invaluable sounding board for ideas, and was responsible for much of the experimental and theoretical work on coherent nanodiffraction. The sections on this topic derive mainly from collaborations by J. C. H. S. with him in the seventies.

One area of science that has shown an explosive growth over the last few decades is materials science. Inherently by nature products of both basic and applied research, materials make possible life and society as we know it today. Materials, ranging from ceramics to semiconductors to composites, are such that new ones must not only be designed and made ... they must also be characterized in terms of their physical, chemical, and mechanical properties. Thus, many new state of-the-art techniques involving spectroscopy, microscopy, and other approaches are now routinely used. Modem materials have wide applications in many sectors of technology. Films, for example, constitute an enormous area of materials and are used extensively. Films in tum can be integrated with other systems such as superconducting metal oxides and organic superconductors. Additionally, ceramics can also be synthesized and fabricated as films for different applications. Catalysts, too, can vary widely in both composition and form. The number of applications for catalysts in industry must easily rank as one of the highest number of applications for any class of materials. Catalysis is impOltant for a wide range of activities in industry, from petroleum refining to the synthesis of a large number of industrial feedstock materials. Researchers in this area of materials are constantly trying to unravel new approaches to making better catalysts."

As the first major reference on glass fractography, contributors to this volume offer a comprehensive account of the fracture of glass as well as various fracture surface topography. Contributors discuss optical fibers, glass containers, and flatglass fractography. In addition, papers explore fracture origins; the growth of the original flaws of defects; and macroscopic fracture patterns from which fracture patterns evolve. This volume is complete with photographs and schematics.

This treatise is a compendium of refereed papers based on invited talks presented at the American Chemical Society Symposium on Electrorheological (ER) Materials and Fluids. ER fluids were first investigated 50+ years ago. These fluids, which change rheology when placed in an electric field, were recognized, from the beginning, for allowing an extremely efficient interface between electrical control and mechanical devices. Critical problems, however, existed with the initial fluids, which prevented them from serious consideration for large-scale applications. While over time some of the critical problems have been solved and activity in ER technology has increased, commercial success has remained elusive. A recent Department of Energy report concluded that a primary reason for the failure to commercialize this promising technology is due to a lack in understanding the physics and chemistry of how the materials work. The goal of the symposium was to address the issue of understanding how ER materials work and how they can be used. One of the outcomes of the symposium, which we hope is conveyed in this book, is a feeling that if the mechanism of ER is to be fully understood and improved, expertise from diverse fields must be applied to the problem.

This book brings together selected contributions both on the fundamental information on the physics and chemistry of these materials, new physical ideas and decisive experiments. It constitutes both an insightful treatise and a handy reference for specialists and graduate students working in solid state physics and chemistry, material science and related fields.

The development of "tailormade" electrode surfaces using electroactive polymer films has been one of the most active and exciting areas of electrochemistry over the last 15 years. The properties of these materials have been examined by a wide range of scientists from a variety of perspectives, and now electroactive polymer research is considered to be a reasonably mature area of research endeavor. Much is now understood about the fundamental mechanism of conduction in these materials. A wide range of electrochemical techniques may be used to probe the conductivity processes in these materials, and more recently, a number of in situ spectroscopic techniques have been used to further elucidate the structure of these materials. The in situ spectroscopies and allied techniques have also been used to obtain correlations between structure and redox activity. The applications found for electroactive polymers are many and varied, and range from thin film amperometric chemical and biological sensors, electrocatalytic systems, drug delivery devices, and advanced battery systems through to molecular electronic devices. The research literature on electroactive polymers is truly enormous and can daunt even the most hardened researcher. The vast quantity of material reported in the literature can also intimidate beginning graduate students. Hence the present book. The original idea for this book arose as a result of a series of lectures on chemically modified eiectrodes and electroactive polymers given by the writer to final-year undergraduates at Trinity College Dublin.

Water-based technology has undergone revolutionary changes during the past two decades. Interest in the properties and uses of water-based coatings, paints and inks has continued to grow since the establishment of the Clean Air Act of 1970. The present book is devoted to recent developments and trends in water-based coating and ink technology. This volume is divided in three broad catagories: (1) Additives and Water-based Coating/Ink Systems, (2) Surface Modifications and Wettability, and (3) Ink/Coating Formulations and Their characterization. The role of various additives to improve the performance and properties of water-based coatings with special reference to surface phenomena such as wettability, adhesion, surface energies, dispersion stability, particle size and size distribution are presented in these sections. This volume documents the proceedings of the International symposium on Surface Phenomena and Additives in Water-Based Coatings and Printing Technology sponsored by the 21st Annual Meeting of the Fine Particle Society (FPS). This meeting was held in San Diego, california, AUgust 21-25, 1990. The symposium upon which this volume is based was organized in four sessions emphasizing several basic and applied aspects of water-based coatings and printing technology. Major topics discussed include advances in water-based technology, water-based flexo and gravure inks, hydrophobically-modified cellulosic thickeners, organosilicones, uv curable silicone release coatings, surface characterization of Ti02 pigments, polymer substrates, flexographic plates and coating films, pigment wetting and dispersing agents, hydrotrope effect in emulsion polymers, film thickness control, particle size measurements, rheological properties, and statistically designed mixtures for ink formulations.

Organic Inhibitors of Corrosion of Metals provides a detailed review of the various theories advanced to explain the mechanisms of organic inhibitors. Author Yu.I. Kuznetsov explores the role of potential and charge of the metal, the nature of the organic species used as the inhibitor, and the function of the solvent. The author draws connections between these key elements and the processes of passivation, pitting, synergism, and complex formation. This unique volume brings together the mechanistic and practical aspects of corrosion control by organic inhibitors.

Phosphate Fibers is a singular detailed account of the discovery, chemistry, synthesis, properties, manufacture, toxicology, and uses of calcium and sodium calcium polyphosphate fibers. Author Edward J. Griffith-the inventor and developer of this safe, biodegradable material-takes a multidisciplinary approach to this subject, considering the social, legal, medical, and industrial issues surrounding the use of asbestos and other mineral fibers. This compelling study is a beneficial resource to both readers interested in mineral fibers as well as those who want to understand the complexities of bringing new substances into the modern marketplace.

The purpose of this book is to stimulate thinking among corrosion scientists and engineers to examine corrosion mechanisms and corro sion control from another perspective. While the presence of corro sion films in electrochemical corrosion has been recognized for over a century, the contribution of these films to all facets of corrosion has not been explored to a significant degree. Rather the role of films in certain mechanisms (i.e., stress corrosion cracking) has been empha sized, yet almost ignored for other corrosion mechanisms. This is viewed by the author as solely attributable to the lack of investigation into, and an understanding of, the contribution of films to these mech anisms or forms of attack. The lack of emphasis and study of corrosion films and their contribution to all forms of corrosion attack are probably the result of current university instruction that utilizes two popular corrosion texts (Uhlig and Fontana and Greene) for teaching. These texts provide an excellent understanding at the undergraduate level of corrosion funda mentals; however, the major implicit premise in these texts is that bulk properties of an alloy or metal control the corrosion resistance in a particular environment. For many applications and for a simple under standing of corrosion mechanics, this approach is sufficient. Yet, research on corrosion films indicate these films often have an entirely different composition than the bulk metal (ratio of alloying elements)."

Following three printings of the First Edition (1978), the publisher has asked for a Second Edition to bring the contents up to date. In doing so the authors aim to show how the newer microscopies are related to the older types with respect to theoretical resolving power (what you pay for) and resolution (what you get). The book is an introduction to students, technicians, technologists, and scientists in biology, medicine, science, and engineering. It should be useful in academic and industrial research, consulting, and forensics; how ever, the book is not intended to be encyclopedic. The authors are greatly indebted to the College of Textiles of North Carolina State University at Raleigh for support from the administration there for typing, word processing, stationery, mailing, drafting diagrams, and general assistance. We personally thank Joann Fish for word process ing, Teresa M. Langley and Grace Parnell for typing services, Mark Bowen for drawing graphs and diagrams, Chuck Gardner for photographic ser vices, Deepak Bhattavahalli for his work with the proofs, and all the other people who have given us their assistance. The authors wish to acknowledge the many valuable suggestions given by Eugene G. Rochow and the significant editorial contributions made by Elizabeth Cook Rochow.

The papers in this volume were presented at the Second International Conference on Unconventional Photoactive Solids held at the R&D Center of BP America September 9-12, 1985. It was part of an on-going series of conferences with the main aim of stressing the Interrelationship of solid state physics and solid state chemistry. The choice of topics covered a broad range of light-Induced solid state phenomena with particular emphasis on novel materials and/or novel phenomena. Organic solids, in particular, were emphasized as they are a natural meeting point of solid state physics and chemistry. A general trend In solid state physics Is to more complex materials (e.g. nonequilibrium glassy films, complicated unit cells, extended molecular building blocks, etc.). This trend necessitates the closer interaction between physicists and chemists. This conference reflects this trend quite dramatically. It is a new grouping together of a mix of materials, people and experimental approaches. A typical new theme pulling together this new mix can be seen in Part I. Fractals in Disordered Media. A variety of disordered media give rise to unusual temporal patterns of diffusion and reactions. The more familiar spatial patterns of self-similarity are discussed in the first article by M.F. Barnsley. Another topic pulling together a diverse group of scientists is covered in Part II. Spectral Hole-Burning. A number of leaders in this field are represented In these three papers.

The origin ofthe International Acoustical Imaging Symposium series can be traced to 1967, when a meeting on acoustical holography was held in C alifornia. In those days, acoustical holography was at the leading edge of research but, as the importance of this subject waned, so the title of the series was changed from Acoustical Holography to Acoustical Imaging in 1978. The early Symposia were held at various venues in the United States. In 1980. the series became international, with the Symposium that year taking place in Cannes in France. The pattern now is to try to met alternately in the USA and in another part of the world so that active researchers everywhere can conveniently attend at a reasonably high frequency. It was a great privilege for us in Bristol in the United Kingdom to be chosen to host the 25th Symposium, which convened on 19 March 2000 and spread over four days. We were blessed not only by good weather, but also by the attendance ofnearly 100 pa rticipants who came from 17 c ountries. A large number of papers were accepted for presentation, either orally or as posters. Whether an oral presentation or a poster, all were considered to have equal merit, and no distinction is made between them in the published proceedings. There were no parallel sessions, so every participant could attend every presentation. The re sultant disciplinary cross fertilisation maintained the t radition of past Symposia.