This series of books, which is published at the rate of about one per year, addresses fundamental problems in materials science. The contents cover a broad range of topics from small clusters of atoms to engineering materials and involve chemistry, physics, materials science, and engineering, with length scales ranging from Angstroms up to millimeters. The emphasis is on basic science rather than on applications. Each book focuses on a single area of current interest and brings together leading experts to give an up-to-date discussion of their work and the work of others. Each article contains enough references that the interested reader can access the relevant literature. Thanks are given to the Center for Fundamental Materials Research at Michigan State University for supporting this series. M. F. Thorpe, Series Editor E-mail: thorpe@pa. msu. edu East Lansing, Michigan V PREFACE It is hard to believe that not quite ten years ago, namely in 1991, nanotubes of carbon were discovered by Sumio Iijima in deposits on the electrodes of the same carbon arc apparatus that was used to produce fullerenes such as the "buckyball." Nanotubes of carbon or other materials, consisting ofhollow cylinders that are only a few nanometers in diameter, yet up to millimeters long, are amazing structures that self-assemble under extreme conditions. Their quasi-one-dimensional character and virtual absence of atomic defects give rise to a plethora of unusual phenomena."

Making Flory-Huggins Practical: Thermodynamics of Polymer-Containing Mixtures, by B. A. Wolf * Aqueous Solutions of Polyelectrolytes: Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium and Some Related Properties, by G. Maurer, S. Lammertz, and L. Ninni Schafer * Gas-Polymer Interactions: Key Thermodynamic Data and Thermophysical Properties, by J.-P. E. Grolier, and S. A.E. Boyer * Interfacial Tension in Binary Polymer Blends and the Effects of Copolymers as Emulsifying Agents, by S. H. Anastasiadis * Theory of Random Copolymer Fractionation in Columns, by Sabine Enders * Computer Simulations and Coarse-Grained Molecular Models Predicting the Equation of State of Polymer Solutions, by K. Binder, B. Mognetti, W. Paul, P. Virnau, and L. Yelash * Modeling of Polymer Phase Equilibria Using Equations of State, by G. Sadowski

The 39th Annual Denver X-Ray Conference on Applications of X-Ray Analysis was held July 30 -August 3, 1990, at the Sheraton Steamboat Resort and Conference Center, Steamboat Springs, Colorado. The "Denver Conference" is recognized to be a major event in the x-ray analysis field, bringing together scientists and engineers from around the world to discuss the state of the art in x-ray applications as well as indications for future develop ments. In recent years there has been a steady expansion of applications of x-ray analysis to characterize surfaces and thin films. To introduce the audience to one of the exciting and important new developments in x-ray fluorescence, the topic for the Plenary Session of the 1990 Conference was: "Surface and Near-Surface X-Ray Spectroscopy. " The Conference had the privilege of inviting five leading world experts in the field of x-ray spectroscopy to deliver lectures at the Plenary Session. The first two lectures were on total-reflection x-ray fluorescence spectrometry. Professor P. Wobrauschek of Austria reviewed "Recent Developments and Results in Total-Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence. " Trends and applications of the technique were also discussed. Dr. T. Arai of Japan reported on "Surface and Near-Surface Analysis of Silicon Wafers by Total Reflection X-Ray Fluorescence. " He emphasized the importance of using proper x-ray optics to achieve high signal-to-noise ratios. A mathematical model relating the x-ray intensity to the depth of x-ray penetration was also described.

Reflection high-energy electron diffraction (RHEED) is the analytical tool of choice for characterizing thin films during growth by molecular beam epitaxy, since it is very sensitive to surface structure and morphology. This book serves as an introduction to RHEED for beginners and describes detailed experimental and theoretical treatments for experts, explaining how to analyze RHEED patterns. For beginners the principles of electron diffraction are explained and many examples of the interpretation of RHEED patterns are described. The second part of the book contains detailed descriptions of RHEED theory. The third part applies RHEED to the determination of surface structures, gives detailed descriptions of the effects of disorder, and critically reviews the mechanisms contributing to RHEED intensity oscillations. This unified and coherent account will appeal to both graduate students and researchers in the study of molecular beam epitaxial growth.

A recent major development in high technology, and one which bears considerable industrial potential, is the advent of low-dimensional semiconductor quantum structures. The research and development activity in this field is moving fast and it is thus important to afford scientists and engineers the opportunity to get updated by the best experts in the field. The present book draws together the latest developments in the fabrication technology of quantum structures, as well as a competent and extensive review of their fundamental properties and some remarkable applications. The book is based on a set of lectures that introduce different aspects of the basic knowledge available, it has a tutorial content and could be used as a textbook. Each aspect is reviewed, from elementary concepts up to the latest developments. Audience: Undergraduates and graduates in electrical engineering and physics schools. Also for active scientists and engineers, updating their knowledge and understanding of the frontiers of the technology.

This volume of Modern Aspects contains seven chapters. The major topics covered in the first six chapters of this volume include fundamentals of solid state electrochemistry; kinetics of electrochemical hydrogen entry into metals and alloys; oxidation of organics; fuel cells; electrode kinetics of trace-anion catalysis; nano structural analysis. The last chapter is a corrected version of chapter four from Volume 35. Faisal M. AI-faqeer and Howard W. Pickering begin the first chapter by going back to 1864 and Cailletet who found that some hydrogen evolved and was absorbed by iron when it was immersed in dilute sulfuric acid. The absorption of hydrogen into metals and alloys can lead to catastrophic failures of structures. They discuss the kinetics of electrochemical hydrogen entry into metals and alloys. In chapter three, Clyde L. Briant reviews the electrochemistry, corrosion and hydrogen embrittlement of unalloyed titanium. He begins by reviewing the basic electrochemistry and general corrosion of titanium. He also discusses pitting and galvanostatic corrosion followed by a review of hydrogen embrittlement emphasizing the formation of hydrides and the effect of these on titanium's mechanical properties. Christos Comninellis and Gy6rgy F6ti discuss the oxidative electrochemical processes of organics in chapter three. They begin by defining direct and indirect electrochemical oxidation of organics. They introduce a model that allows them to distinguish between active (strong) and non-active (weak) anodes. Different classes of organic compounds are used for kinetic models of organic oxidation at active and non-active type anodes.

Bringing Scanning Probe Microscopy Up to Speed introduces the principles of scanning probe systems with particular emphasis on techniques for increasing speed. The authors include useful information on the characteristics and limitations of current state-of-the-art machines as well as the properties of the systems that will follow in the future. The basic approach is two-fold. First, fast scanning systems for single probes are treated and, second, systems with multiple probes operating in parallel are presented. The key components of the SPM are the mechanical microcantilever with integrated tip and the systems used to measure its deflection. In essence, the entire apparatus is devoted to moving the tip over a surface with a well-controlled force. The mechanical response of the actuator that governs the force is of the utmost importance since it determines the scanning speed. The mechanical response relates directly to the size of the actuator; smaller is faster. Traditional scanning probe microscopes rely on piezoelectric tubes of centimeter size to move the probe. In future scanning probe systems, the large actuators will be replaced with cantilevers where the actuators are integrated on the beam. These will be combined in arrays of multiple cantilevers with MEMS as the key technology for the fabrication process.

Crystalline or, more properly, semi-crystalline polymers continue to present major challenges and opportunities to scientists and technologists alike. On the one hand, scientific understanding of their structure and properties still lags behind that of other economically important, but less complicated materials. On the other hand, there remains very considerable potential for improving properties in systems designed for specific pur poses. Ways are only just being found of transferring inherent molecular properties (such as high modulus) to the macromolecular solid. Beyond these are many possibilities of manipulating the organization of chemical and physical textures towards desired ends. The chapters in this volume are reports, by wen-known and active researchers, on some of the important recent developments ofthese themes. Grubb begins with the fundamental and central problem of determining polymeric microstructure. Polymers sutTer by comparison with other materials in that it has not generany been possible to exploit the high resolution of the electron microscope to determine their microstructure in adequate detail. However, recently, ways have been found of studying representative lamellar textures in melt-crystallized polymers. When fully exploited these must add greatly to our detailed knowledge and provide a firmer fundamental base for future developments. Radiation damage bears the primary responsibility for restricting electron microscopy. In his chapter, Kener recounts how appreciation of this fact led him into a fascinating study of ever deeper aspects of radiation damage in polyethylene over two decades, often controversiany but invariably clarifying the basic understanding of an area now of increasing commercial importance."

In recent years, the technology of cryogenic comminution has been widely applied in the field of chemical engineering, food making, medicine production, and particularly in recycling of waste materials. Because of the increasing pollution of waste tires and the shortage of raw rubber resource, the recycling process for waste rubber products has become important and commercially viable. This technology has shown a great number of advantages such as causing no environmental pollution, requiring low energy consumption and producing high quality products. Hence, the normal crusher which was used to reclaim materials, such as waste tires, nylon, plastic and many polymer materials at atmospheric 12 temperature is being replaced by a cryogenic crusher. * In the cryogenic crusher, the property of the milled material is usually very sensitive to temperature change. When a crusher is in operation, it will generate a great deal of heat that causes the material temperature increased. Once the temperature increases over the vitrification temperature, the material property will change and lose the brittle behavior causing the energy consumption to rise sharply. Consequently, the comminution process cannot be continued. Therefore, it is believed that the cryogenic crusher is the most critical component in the cryogenic comminution system. The research on the temperature increase and energy consumption in the cryogenic crusher is not only to reduce the energy consumption of the crasher, but also to reduce the energy consumption of the cryogenic system.

This book has evolved by processes of selection and expansion from its predecessor, Practical Scanning Electron Microscopy (PSEM), published by Plenum Press in 1975. The interaction of the authors with students at the Short Course on Scanning Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis held annually at Lehigh University has helped greatly in developing this textbook. The material has been chosen to provide a student with a general introduction to the techniques of scanning electron microscopy and x-ray microanalysis suitable for application in such fields as biology, geology, solid state physics, and materials science. Following the format of PSEM, this book gives the student a basic knowledge of (1) the user-controlled functions of the electron optics of the scanning electron microscope and electron microprobe, (2) the characteristics of electron-beam-sample inter actions, (3) image formation and interpretation, (4) x-ray spectrometry, and (5) quantitative x-ray microanalysis. Each of these topics has been updated and in most cases expanded over the material presented in PSEM in order to give the reader sufficient coverage to understand these topics and apply the information in the laboratory. Throughout the text, we have attempted to emphasize practical aspects of the techniques, describing those instru ment parameters which the microscopist can and must manipulate to obtain optimum information from the specimen. Certain areas in particular have been expanded in response to their increasing importance in the SEM field. Thus energy-dispersive x-ray spectrometry, which has undergone a tremendous surge in growth, is treated in substantial detail.

This book includes small and large scale applications of super conductivity. Part I, SQUIDs, comprises about 75% of this volume, and is devoted to small scale applications, mainly . uperconducting QUantum Interference Devices (SQUIDs), and the remainder, Part H, Machines, presents an updated review of large scale applications of superconduc tivity. The present book combined with the previous book Superconducting Machines and Devices: Large Systems Applications edited by S. Foner and B. B. Schwartz, Plenum Press, New York (1974) represents a detailed and most up-to-date review of the applications of superconducting tech nology. The text of the current book is suitable for advanced undergrad uates or graduate students in applied physics and engineering courses. The book should be valuable to scientists, engineers and technologists interested in the current status and future applications of superconduc tivity technology. The last 7 chapters in Part I review the major nation al efforts on small scale technology and should prove useful for industrial and government planners as weIl as scientists and engineers."

These volumes, 7 and 8, of Fracture Mechanics of Ceramics constitute the proceedings of an international symposium on the fracture mechanics of ceramic materials held at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, Virginia on June 19, 20 and 21, 1985. These proceedings constitute the fourth pair of volumes of a continuing series of conferences. The theme of this conference, as the previous three, focused on the mechanical behavior of ceramic materials in terms of the characteristics of cracks, particularly the roles which they assume in the fracture process. The 78 contributed papers by over 100 authors and co-authors represent the current state of the field. They address many of the theoretical and practical problems of interest to those concerned with brittle fracture. The program chairmen gratefully acknowledge the financial assistance for the Symposium provided by the EXXON Foundation, the Army Research Office, the National Science Foundation, and the Office of Naval Research. Without their support, this conference simply would not have been possible. The suggestions of Drs. J. C. Hurt, R. C. Pohanka, and L. Toth were particularly helpful in assuring the" success of this symposium. Special appreciation is extended to Professor J. I. Robertson, C. P. Miles Professor of History, whose presentation following the banquet on the American Civil War was very well received by the audience. Finally, we wish to also thank our joint secretaries, especially Karen Snider, for their patience and help in finally bringing these proceedings to press.

The Eleventh University Conference on Ceramic Science held at Case Western Reserve University fran June 3 - 5, 1974 was devoted to the subject of M:l.ss Transport Phenanena in Ceramics. '!his book follows closely the fonn of the oonference. While the active participation at the meeting was not reoorded, it is clear that many of the contributors have benefited fran the ranarks, suggestions, and criticisms of the participants. Fur- thennore, the session chainnen -- Delbert Day (Univ. of Missouri), WU. IaCourse {AlfrErl Univ.) , W. Richard ott (Rutgers Univ.) , A.L. FriErlberg (Univ. of Illinois), v. Stubican (Penn. State Univ.), and R. Loehman (Univ. of Florida) -- successfully kept the meeting to a reasonable schedule, but also stimulated the lively discussion. The book divides naturally into four sections, focusing on correlation and ooup1ing effects in diffusion in ionic materials, understanding of fast ion transport, diffusion and electrical con- ductivity in crystalline and glassy oxides and applications of diffusion to oxidation and other processes of current interest. The editors have benefited fran the cheerful help and assis- tance of many people. !-1rs. Karyn P1etka typed the entire manu- script with unusual accuracy and tolerance. Mr. MakmJd E1Lei1, Ajit Sane, Leslie M:l.jor and Ms. Jenny Sang provided the subject index. The authors have been cooperative and understanding and we ack.now1Erlge our enjoyment in working with them.

It is with great pleasure and satisfaction that I present to the international scientific community this collection of papers presented at the symposium on Surface Phenomena in Enhanced Oil Recovery held at Stockholm, Sweden, during August 20-25, 1979. It has been an exciting and exhausting experience to edit the papers included in this volume. The proceedings cover six major areas of research related to chemical flooding processes for enhanced oil recovery, namely, 1) Fundamental aspects of the oil displacement process, 2) Micro structure of surfactant systems, 3) Emulsion rheology and oil dis placement mechanisms, 4) Wettability and oil displacement mecha nisms, 5) Adsorption, clays and chemical loss mechanisms, and 6) Polymer rheology and surfactant-polymer interactions. This book also includes two invited review papers, namely, "Research on Enhanced Oil Recovery: Past, Present and Future," and "Formation and Properties of Micelles and Microemulsions" by Professor J. J. Taber and Professor H. F. Eicke respectively. This symposium volume reflects the current state-of-art and our understanding of various surface phenomena in enhanced oil recovery processes. The participation by researchers from various countries in this symposium reflects the global interest in this area of research and the international effort to develop che science and technology of enhanced oil recovery processes.

Organic Additives and Ceramic Processing: With Applications in Powder Metallurgy, Ink, and Paint describes the major manufacturing processes, such as slip casting, tape casting, injection molding, etc. The book covers each subject, including the ceramic processes, organic chemical structures, polymers, colloid science and others, starting from fundamental principles, with many literature references for further reading. After the fundamentals, detailed case studies from industrial applications are described for the optimization of solvents, dispersants, binders, plasticizers, lubricants and some minor additives. A wide range of information is covered, beginning with fundamental equations for students, and extending to advanced applications for development workers and factory problem solvers. Shanefield undertook this ambitious task only because of the previous lack of resources that address the growing need for detailed information on organic additives for ceramics. Suitable for use as a textbook and as a reference source for working ceramists and chemists who wish to supply the ceramics industry with additives.

Computer Aided Engineering may be defined as an approach to solving tech nological problems in which most or all of the steps involved are automated through the use of computers, data bases and mathematical models. The success of this ap proach, considering hot forming, is tied very directly to an understanding of material behaviour when subjected to deformation at high temperatures. There is general agreement among engineers that not enough is known about that topic -and this gave the initial impetus for the project described in the present study. The authors secured a research grant from NATO (Special Research Grant #390/83) with a mandate to study the "State-of-the-Art of Controlled Rolling." What follows is the result of that study. There are five chapters in this Monograph. The first one, entitled "State-of-the Art of Controlled Rolling" discusses industrial and laboratory practices and research designed to aid in the development of microalloyed steels of superior quality. Follow ing this is the chapter "Methods of Determining Stress-Strain Curves at Elevated Temperatures." The central concern here is the material's resistance to deformation or in other words, its flow strength, the knowledge of which is absolutely essential for the efficient and economical utilization of the computers controlling the rolling process."

Under the guidance of the German Federal Institute for Materials Research (BAM), the standards for fabrication and application of reference materials are presented here in comprehensive form. The areas covered are analytical chemistry, materials science, environmental analysis, clinical and forensic toxicological analysis, and gas and food analysis. A standard reference for every analytical laboratory.

Once again, it gives me a great pleasure to pen the Foreword to the Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Thermal Conductivity. As in the past, these now biannual conferences pro vide a broadly based forum for those researchers actively working on this important property of matter to convene on a regular basis to exchange their experiences and report their findings. As it is apparent from the Table of Contents, the 15th Conference represents perhaps the broadest coverage of subject areas to date. This is indicative of the times as the boundaries between disciplines be come increasingly diffused. I am sure the time has come when Con ference Chairmen in coming years will be soliciting contributions not only in the physical sciences and engineering', but will actively seek contributions from the earth sciences and life sciences as well. Indeed, the thermal conductivity and related properties of geological and biological materials are becoming of increasing im portance to our way of life. As it can be seen from the summary table, unfortunately, proceedings have been published only for six of the fifteen con ferences. It is hoped that hereafter this Series will become increasingly well known and be recognized as a major vehicle for the reporting of research on thermal conductivity."

For emerging energy saving technologies superconducting materials with superior performance are needed. Such materials can be developed by manipulating the "elementary building blocks" through nanostructuring. For superconductivity the "elementary blocks" are Cooper pair and fluxon (vortex). This book presents new ways how to modify superconductivity and vortex matter through nanostructuring and the use of nanoscale magnetic templates. The basic nano-effects, vortex and vortex-antivortex patterns, vortex dynamics, Josephson phenomena, critical currents, and interplay between superconductivity and ferromagnetism at the nanoscale are discussed. Potential applications of nanostructured superconductors are also presented in the book.