2. High Temperature UHV-STM System 264 3. Hydrogen Desorption Process on Si (111) Surface 264 4. (7x7) - (1 xl) Phase Transition on Si (111) Surface 271 Step Shifting under dc Electric Fields 275 5. 6. Conclusions 280 Acknowledgements and References 281 12. DYNAMIC OBSERVATION OF VORTICES IN SUPERCONDUCTORS USING ELECTRON WAVES 283 by Akira Tonomura 1. Introduction 283 2. Experimental Method 284 2. 1 Interference Microscopy 284 2. 2 Lorentz Microscopy 287 Observation of Superconducting Vortices 288 3. 3. 1 Superconducting Vortices Observed by Interference Microscopy 288 3. 1. 1 Profile Mode 288 3. 1. 2 Transmission Mode 291 3. 2 Superconducting Vortices Observed by Lorentz Microscopy 293 3. 3 Observation of Vortex Interaction with Pinning Centers 294 3. 3. 1 Surface Steps 295 3. 3. 2 Irradiated Point Defects 296 4. Conclusion 298 References 299 13. TEM STUDIES OF SOME STRUCTURALLY FLEXIBLE SOLIDS AND THEIR ASSOCIATED PHASE TRANSFORMATIONS 301 by Ray L. Withers and John G. Thompson 1. Introduction 301 2. Tetrahedrally Comer-Connected Framework Structures 302 3. Tetragonal a-PbO 311 4. Compositionally Flexible Anion-Deficient Fluorites and the "Defect Fluorite" to C-type Sesquioxide Transition 320 5. Summary and Conclusions 327 Acknowledgements and References 327 Author Index 331 Subject Index 333 List of Contributors A. ASEEV Institute of Semiconductor Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences Novosibirsk, 630090, pr. ac. , Lavrentjeva 13, RUSSIA E. BAUER Department of Physics and Astronomy, Arizona State University Tempe, AZ 85287-1504, U. S. A. G. H.

As we approach the end of the present century, the elementary particles of light (photons) are seen to be competing increasingly with the elementary particles of charge (electrons/holes) in the task of transmitting and processing the insatiable amounts of infonnation needed by society. The massive enhancements in electronic signal processing that have taken place since the discovery of the transistor, elegantly demonstrate how we have learned to make use of the strong interactions that exist between assemblages of electrons and holes, disposed in suitably designed geometries, and replicated on an increasingly fine scale. On the other hand, photons interact extremely weakly amongst themselves and all-photonic active circuit elements, where photons control photons, are presently very difficult to realise, particularly in small volumes. Fortunately rapid developments in the design and understanding of semiconductor injection lasers coupled with newly recognized quantum phenomena, that arise when device dimensions become comparable with electronic wavelengths, have clearly demonstrated how efficient and fast the interaction between electrons and photons can be. This latter situation has therefore provided a strong incentive to devise and study monolithic integrated circuits which involve both electrons and photons in their operation. As chapter I notes, it is barely fifteen years ago since the first demonstration of simple optoelectronic integrated circuits were realised using m-V compound semiconductors; these combined either a laser/driver or photodetector/preamplifier combination.

219 8. 2 Sensors 221 8. 3 Physical Sensors 222 8. 3. 1 Electrical Sensing Means 223 8. 3. 2 Magnetic Field Methods 231 8. 3. 3 Optical Methods 232 8. 4 Chemical Sensors 241 8. 4. 1 Electrical Gas and Chemical Sensors 243 8. 4. 2 Guided-Optics Intrinsic Chemical Sensors 246 8. 4. 3 Extrinsic Chemical Sensors 250 8. 4. 4 Polymer Waveguide Chemical Sensors 251 8. 4. 5 Surface Plasmon Chemical Sensors 252 8. 4. 6 Indicator-Mediated Extrinsic Sensing 253 8. 4. 7 Optical Biosensors 256 8. 4. 8 Ultrasonic Gas and Chemical Sensors 257 8. 4. 9 Intelligent Sensors 258 8. 5 Connections/Links and Wiring 258 8. 5. 1 Optical Links 260 8. 5. 2 Requirement on the Processing Unit/Intelligence 262 8. 6 Actuators 263 8. 7 Signal Processing/Computing 264 8. 7. 1 Implicit Computation 266 8. 7. 2 Explicit Computation 267 8. 8 References 274 Subject Index 279 Micro-Actuators (Electrical, Magnetic, Thermal, Optical, Mechanical, and Chemical) It has become quite apparent that sensors and actuators are the main bottleneck of the modem information processing and control systems. Microprocessors and computers used to be the main limiting element in most information processing systems. But thanks to the enonnous progress in the microelectronics industry, most information analysis tasks can be processed in real time. The data has to be acquired by the processor in some form and processed and used to produce some useful function in the real world.

The introduction of GaAs/ AIGaAs double heterostructure lasers has opened the door to a new age in the application of compound semiconductor materials to microwave and optical technologies. A variety and combination of semiconductor materials have been investigated and applied to present commercial uses with these devices operating at wide frequencies and wavelengths. Semiconductor modulators are typical examples of this technical evolutions and hsve been developed for commercial use. Although these have a long history to date, we are not aware of any book that details this evolution. Consequently, we have written a book to provide a comprehensive account of semiconductor modulators with emphasis on historical details and experimantal reports. The objective is to provide an up-to-date understanding of semiconductor modulators. Particular attention has been paid to multiple quantum well (MQW) modulators operating at long wavelengths, taking into account the low losses and dispersion in silica fibers occuring at around 1.3 and 1.55 mm. At the present time, MQW structures have been investigated but these have not been sufficiently developed to provide characteristic features which would be instructive enough for readers. One problem is the almost daily publication of papers on semiconductor modulators. Not only do these papers provide additional data, but they often modify the interpretations of particular concepts. Almost all chapters refer to the large number of published papers that can be consulted for future study.

Heat treatment of metallic alloys constitutes an important step within the production process. The heat treatment process itself is considered as a cycle of heating the workpieces to a predetermined temperature, keeping them at this temperature for the time period required, and cooling them to room temperature in an appropriate way. The process of heating and keeping workpieces at the required temperature is now adays weil mastered and mostly automatized. The process of cooling or quenching which determines actually the resulting properties, is handicapped with many physical and technical uncertainties. Good results can already be obtained predominantly by using empirically based practice. But increased demands on the properties of the pro ducts as weIl as demands on safety and environment conditions of the quenching media require efforts to investigate the details of the quenching process and to transfer the results of the research to practical application. Advances in the knowledge about quenching processes have been achieved by modem applied thermodynamics especially by the heat and mass transfer researches; further the application of computer technology was helpful to new approaches in quenching pro cesses. Special emphases has been given to: - The theory of heat transfer and heat exchange intensification during quenching - Wetting kinematics - Residual stresses after quenching - Determination of the quenching intensity - Prediction of microstructural transformation and hardness distribution after quenching, the latter with some limitations."

This the fourth volume of six from the Annual Conference of the Society for Experimental Mechanics, 2010, brings together 58 chapters on Application of Imaging Techniques to Mechanics of Materials and Structure. It presents findings from experimental and computational investigations involving a range of imaging techniques including Recovery of 3D Stress Intensity Factors From Surface Full-field Measurements, Identification of Cohesive-zone Laws From Crack-tip Deformation Fields, Application of High Speed Digital Image Correlation for Vibration Mode Shape Analysis, Characterization of Aluminum Alloys Using a 3D Full Field Measurement, and Low Strain Rate Measurements on Explosives Using DIC.

Die 2. Auflage dieses Buches ist durch Mitarbeiter des Institutes fur Textiltechnik der RWTH Aachen fachlich durchgesehen, auf den neuesten Stand gebracht, um etwa 1.000 Begriffe erweitert und durch die italienische Sprache erganzt.

1 U.H.F. Bunz: Synthesis and Structure of PAEs.- 2 E. Klemm, T. Pautzsch, L. Blankenburg: Organometallic PAEs.- 3 C.R. Ray, J.S. Moore: Supramolecular Organization of Foldable Phenylene Ethynylene Oligomers.- 4 J. Zheng, T.M. Swager: Poly(arylene ethynylene)s in Chemosensing and Biosensing.- 5 T. Yamamoto, I. Yamaguchi, T. Yasuda: PAEs with Heteroaromatic Rings.- 6 G. Voskerician, C. Weder: Electronic Properties of PAEs.-

Through his voluminous and in?uential writings, editorial activities, organi- tional leadership, intellectual acumen, and strong sense of history, Clifford - brose Truesdell III (1919-2000) was the main architect for the renaissance of - tional continuum mechanics since the middle of the twentieth century. The present collection of 42 essays and research papers pays tribute to this man of mathematics, science, and natural philosophy as well as to his legacy. The ?rst ?ve essays by B. D. Coleman, E. Giusti, W. Noll, J. Serrin, and D. Speiser were texts of addresses given by their authors at the Meeting in memory of Clifford Truesdell, which was held in Pisa in November 2000. In these essays the reader will ?nd personal reminiscences of Clifford Truesdell the man and of some of his activities as scientist, author, editor, historian of exact sciences, and principal founding member of the Society for Natural Philosophy. The bulk of the collection comprises 37 research papers which bear witness to the Truesdellian legacy. These papers cover a wide range of topics; what ties them together is the rational spirit. Clifford Truesdell, in his address upon receipt of a Birkhoff Prize in 1978, put the essence of modern continuum mechanics succinctly as "conceptual analysis, analysis not in the sense of the technical term but in the root meaning: logical criticism, dissection, and creative scrutiny.

Progress in the development of surgical implant materials has been hindered by the lack of basic information on the nature of the tissues, organs and systems being repaired or replaced. Materials' properties of living systems, whose study has been conducted largely under the rubric of tissue mechanics, has tended to be more descriptive than quantitative. In the early days of the modern surgical implant era, this deficiency was not critical. However, as implants continue to improve and both longer service life and higher reliability are sought, the inability to predict the behavior of implanted manufactured materials has revealed the relative lack of knowledge of the materials properties of the supporting or host system, either in health or disease. Such a situation is unacceptable in more conventional engineering practice: the success of new designs for aeronautical and marine applications depends exquisitely upon a detailed, disciplined and quantitative knowledge of service environments, including the properties of materials which will be encountered and interacted with. Thus the knowledge of the myriad physical properties of ocean ice makes possible the design and development of icebreakers without the need for trial and error. In contrast, the development period for a new surgical implant, incorporating new materials, may well exceed a decade and even then only short term performance predictions can be made.

The development of photosensitive materials in general and photoreactive polymers in particular is responsible for major advances in the information, imaging, and electronic industries. Computer parts manufacturing, information storage, and book and magazine publishing all depend on photoreactive polymer systems. The photo-and radiation-induced processes in polymers are also active areas of research. New information on the preparation and properties of com mercially available photosensitive systems is constantly being acquired. The recent demand for environmentally safe solvent-free and water-soluble materials also motivated changes in the composition of photopolymers and photoresists. The interest in holographic recording media for head-up displays, light scanners, and data recording stimulated development of reconfigurable and visible light sensitive materials. Photoconductive polymerizable coatings are being tested in electrostatic proofing and color printing. The list of available initiators, poly meric binders, and other coating ingredients is continually evolving to respond to the requirements of low component loss (low diffusivity) and the high rate of photochemical reactions.

This is a work in four parts, dealing with the mechanics and thermodynamics of materials with memory, including properties of the dynamical equations which describe their evolution in time under varying loads. The first part is an introduction to Continuum Mechanics with sections dealing with classical Fluid Mechanics and Elasticity, linear and non-linear. The second part is devoted to Continuum Thermodynamics, which is used to derive constitutive equations of materials with memory, including viscoelastic solids, fluids, heat conductors and some examples of non-simple materials. In part three, free energies for materials with linear memory constitutive relations are comprehensively explored. The new concept of a minimal state is also introduced. Formulae derived over the last decade for the minimum and related free energies are discussed in depth. Also, a new single integral free energy which is a functional of the minimal state is analyzed in detail. Finally, free energies for examples of non-simple materials are considered. In the final part, existence, uniqueness and stability results are presented for the integrodifferential equations describing the dynamical evolution of viscoelastic materials. A new approach to these topics, based on the use of minimal states rather than histories, is discussed in detail. There are also chapters on the controllability of thermoelastic systems with memory, the Saint-Venant problem for viscoelastic materials and on the theory of inverse problems.

stacked QD structure and is useful for examining the possibility of all optical measurement of stacked QD layers. Optical absorption spectra of self-assembled QDs has been little reported, and further investigation in necessary to study hole-burning memory. 2.5 Summary This chapter describes recent advances in quantum dot fabrication tech nologies, focusing on our self-formed quantum dot technologies including TSR quantum dots and SK-mode self-assembled quantum dots. As is described in this chapter, there are many possible device applications such as quantum dot tunneling memory devices, quantum dot fioating-dot gate FETs, quantum dot lasers, and quantum dot hole-burning memory devices. The quantum dot laser applications seem to be the most practicable among these applications. However, many problems remain to be solved before even this application becomes practical. The most important issue is to of self-assembled quantum dots more pre control the size and position cisely, with an accuracy on an atomic scale. The confinement must be enough to keep the separation energy between quantized energy levels high enough to get high-temperature characteristics. The lasing oscillation frequency should be fixed at 1.3 f.lITl or 1.5 f.lITl for optical communication. Phonon bottleneck problems should be solved by the optimization of device structures. Fortunately, there is much activity in the area of quantum dot lasers and, therefore, many breakthroughs will be made, along with the exploration of other new application areas.

The purpose of Oxide-Based Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic-Matrix Composites is to provide comprehensive information on the most recent successful findings. The book consists of six chapters which characterize the current state of the art concerning oxide-based fiber-reinforced composites. Chapter one provides an introduction, examples of application areas and background information. Chapter two deals with the primary material properties for the areas of application and lists the possible constituent parts of the composites, depending on particular demands. Chapter three explains both the past and present fabrication methods which can affect the performance of the composites. Chapter four defines the interphase-related phenomena and describes the mechanical characteristics of the oxide-based fiber-reinforced composite, produced with different interphases. Chapter five deals with the fabrication route, functionality and mechanical characterization of the porous-matrix composites. The last chapter summarizes the present achievements and identifies requirements for reaching the goal, thereby providing a promising course for future research.

The papers published in these proceedings represent the latest developments in the nondestructive characterization of materials and were presented at the Eleventh International Symposium on Nondestructive Characterization of Materials held in June 2002, in Berlin, Germany.

The photorefractive effect is now firmly established as one of the highest-sensitivity nonlinear optical effects, making it an attractive choice for use in many optical holographic processing applications. As with all technologies based on advanced materials, the rate of progress in the development of photorefractive applications has been principally limited by the rate at which breakthroughs in materials science have supplied better photorefractive materials. The last ten years have seen an upsurge of interest in photorefractive applications because of several advances in the synthesis and growth of new and sensitive materials. This book is a collection of many of the most important recent developments in photorefractive effects and materials. The introductory chapter, which provides the necessary tools for understanding a wide variety of photorefractive phenomena, is followed by seven contributed chapters that offer views of the state-of-the-art in several different material systems. The second chapter represents the most detailed study to date on the growth and photorefractive performance of BaTi03, one of the most important photorefractive ferroelectrlcs. The third chapter describes the process of permanently fixing holographic gratings in ferroelectrics, important for volumetric data storage with ultra-high data densities. The fourth chapter describes the discovery and theory of photorefractive spatial solitons. Photorefractive polymers are an exciting new class of photo refractive materials, described in the fifth chapter. Polymers have many advantages, primarily related to fabrication, that could promise a breakthrough to the marketplace because of ease and low-cost of manufacturing.

When this publisher offered me the opportunity to \\Tite a book, some six years ago, I did not hesitate to say yes. I had just spent the last four years of graduate school struggling to understand the physics of strained quantum well lasers, and it seemed to me the whole experience was much more difficult that it should have been. For although many of the results I needed were easy to locate, the underlying physical premises and intervening steps were not. If only I had a book providing the derivations, I could have absorbed them and gone on my way. Such a book lies before you. It provides a unified and self-contained descrip tion of the essential physics of strained quantum well lasers, starting from first principles whenever feasible. The presentation I have chosen requires only the standard introductory background in quantum mechanics, solid state physics, and electromagnetics expected of entering graduate students in physics or elec trical engineering. A single undergraduate course in each of these subjects should be more than sufficient to follow the text. :'Iore advanced material on quantum mechanics is developed and collected in the first chapter. \Vhen pos sible, I have presented the results in a general setting and have later applied them to specific cases of interest. I find this the most satisfying way to ap proach the subject, and it has the additional benefit of solving many problems once and for all.

Amorphous silicon solar cell technology has evolved considerably since the first amorphous silicon solar cells were made at RCA Laboratories in 1974. Scien tists working in a number of laboratories worldwide have developed improved alloys based on hydrogenated amorphous silicon and microcrystalline silicon. Other scientists have developed new methods for growing these thin films while yet others have developed new photovoltaic (PV) device structures with im proved conversion efficiencies. In the last two years, several companies have constructed multi-megawatt manufacturing plants that can produce large-area, multijunction amorphous silicon PV modules. A growing number of people be lieve that thin-film photovoltaics will be integrated into buildings on a large scale in the next few decades and will be able to make a major contribution to the world's energy needs. In this book, Ruud E. I. Schropp and Miro Zeman provide an authoritative overview of the current status of thin film solar cells based on amorphous and microcrystalline silicon. They review the significant developments that have occurred during the evolution of the technology and also discuss the most im portant recent innovations in the deposition of the materials, the understanding of the physics, and the fabrication and modeling of the devices.

may never overcome the effects of hysteresis and stress (see Chapters 6 and 12). The first sentence of the reference work, Handbook of Liquid Crystals, reads: The terms liquid crystals, crystalline liquid, mesophase, and mesomorphous state are used synonymously to describe a state of aggregation that exhibits a molecular order in a size range similar to that of a crystal but acts more or less as a viscous liquid: [2] In other words, molecules within a liquid crystalline phase possess some orientational order and lack positional order; furthermore, the shape of a liquid crystalline sample is determined by the vessel in which it is contained rather than by the orientational order of its aggregated molecules. The authors recognized the limitations and imprecision of this definition but, like others preceding them, could not devise a simple and generally applicable one that is better. Regardless, the terms 'liquid crystal' and 'mesophase' should not be used interchangeably. As mentioned above, all liquid crystals are mesophases, but all mesophases are not liquid crystals. Recent studies, employing elaborate and sophisticated analytical techniques, have permitted finer distinctions between classical crystals and mesophases. At the same time, they have made definitions like that from the Handbook of Liquid Crystals somewhat obsolete for reasons other than terminology. One part of the problem arises from the use of a combination of bulk properties (like flow) and microscopic properties (like molecular ordering) within the same definition.

Approximately four million years of human history has passed. We have been using materials to make a variety of tools. The first materials used were naturally occurring materials such as animal bones, stones, wood etc.; and some of these familiar materials are porous. Porous materials are so familiar that they are sometimes forgotten or ignored. The taste experience of ice cream is created not only by adjusting ingre dients, but also by including air as an ingredient, i.e. pores that give the smooth texture of ice cream. This book is designed to describe and explain about pores, the synthesis of materials with pores (porous materials), and applications of porous materi als. This book is intended for engineers and scientists of different disciplines and specialities, and is expected to be useful in the design and synthesis of porous materials for existing as well as potential new applications. Let us rediscover pores. K. Ishizaki, S. Komameni and M. Nanko January 1998 1 Introduction 1.1 WHAT ARE POROUS MATERIALS? Porous materials are dermed as solids containing pores. Figure 1.1 shows different porous materials. Generally speaking, porous materials have a porosity of 0.2-0.95. The porosity means the fraction of pore volume to the total volume. Porous materials have been used in various applications from daily necessities, such as purifying drinking water by activated carbon or porous ceramics, to uses in modern industries, for example removing dusts from high purity process gases for semiconductor production.

It is a pleasure to write a foreword for Professor Tore Wessel-Berg's book, "Electromagnetic and Quantum Measurements: A Bitemporal Neoclassical Theory." This book appeals to me for several reasons. The most important is that, in this book, Wessel-Berg breaks from the pack. The distinguished astrophysicist Thomas Gold has written about the pressures on scientists to move in tight formation, to avoid having their legs nipped by the sheepdogs of science. This book demonstrates that Wessel-Berg is willing to take that risk. I confess that I do not sufficiently understand this book to be able to either agree or disagree with its thesis. Nevertheless, Wessel-Berg makes very cogent arguments for setting out on his journey. The basic equations of physics are indeed time-reversible. Our experience, that leads us to the concept of an "arrow of time," is derived from macro scopic phenomena, not from fundamental microscopic phenomena. For this reason, it makes very good sense to explore the consequences of treating microscopic phenomena on the assumption that forward time and backward time are equal.

254 7. 2 AEROSPACE 261 7. 3 MARINE 265 7. 4 GROUND TRANSPORTATION 268 7. 5 CNIL 270 References 285 Index Preface Most structures consist of an assembly of a number of individual components that must be connected to form an integral load transmission path. These connections are often referred to as joints and can be achieved in a variety of forms, e. g. by bolting, riveting, or other forms of mechanical fastening, or by welding or brazing for connecting metallic elements, or by adhesive bonding. No matter what forms of connections are used in the structure, these joints are potentially the weakest points in the structure and the locations where a weight penalty may apply. Thus structural joints must be designed adequately to meet the specific design requirements. Adhesive bonding represents one of the most important enabling technologies for developing innovative design concepts and structural configurations as well as exploiting new materials. The evolution of adhesive bonding technology, and its current knowledge base, was made possibly by the explosive growth in the adhesive applications in a great variety of industries over the past few decades. While it is easy for everyone to identify examples of adhesive bonding in the world around us, analysis and design of structural bonded joints represent one of the most challenging jobs in structural design and manufacturing. Compared to other joining methods, particularly mechanical fastening, adhesive bonding can offer substantial performance and economic advantages.

Research on calcium phosphates has attracted considerable attention in recent years. Calcium phosphates are the major inorganic constituents of biological hard tissues such as teeth and bones and other pathological minerals. Calcium phosphates have been widely produced in industry, in such forms as, ceramics, nutrient supplements, medicines, dentifrices, and stabilizers for plastics. They are utilized in solid state chemistry as fluorescent lamp phosphors and play a role in waste water treatment processes. Calcium phosphates are important in industrial water treatment (Le. , boiler and cooling) where deposition of these salts on heat exchanger surfaces can lead to loss of system efficiency, overheating, unscheduled shutdown time, and ultimately heat exchanger failures. Effective control of calcium phosphate deposits continue to challenge the industrial scientist. Calcium phosphate deposits have also been encountered during pasteurization of milk. Calcium phosphates of interest include: dicalcium phosphate dihydrate (DCPD, CaHP0-2H0), brushite; dicalcium phosphate anhydrous (DCP, CaHP0), 4 2 4 monetite; octacalcium phosphate (OCP, CasH2(P04)6-SH20); tricalcium phosphate (TCP, Ca3(P04h), whitlockite; and hydroxyapatite (HAP, Cas(P04h0H). Other calcium compounds of biological and industrial interest include: amorphous calcium phosphate (ACP); fluorapatite (FAP, CaS(P04)~); calcium pyrophosphate dihydrate (CPPD, CaP07-2H0); calcium fluoride; and calcium phosphonates. 2 2 2 This book is intended to provide a comprehensive discussion on calcium phosphates in the diverse areas of their investigations.