This book describes in detail the physical and mathematical foundations of ultrasonic phased array measurements. The book uses linear systems theory to develop a comprehensive model of the signals and images that can be formed with phased arrays. Engineers working in the field of ultrasonic nondestructive evaluation (NDE) will find in this approach a wealth of information on how to design, optimize and interpret ultrasonic inspections with phased arrays. The fundamentals and models described in the book will also be of significant interest to other fields, including the medical ultrasound and seismology communities. A unique feature of this book is that it presents a unified theory of imaging with phased arrays that shows how common imaging methods such as the synthetic aperture focusing technique (SAFT), the total focusing method (TFM), and the physical optics far field inverse scattering (POFFIS) imaging method are all simplified versions of more fundamental and quantitative imaging approaches, called imaging measurement models. To enhance learning, this book first describes the fundamentals of phased array systems using 2-D models, so that the complex 3-D cases normally found in practice can be more easily understood. In addition to giving a detailed discussion of phased array systems, Fundamentals of Ultrasonic Phased Arrays also provides MATLAB® functions and scripts, allowing the reader to conduct simulations of ultrasonic phased array transducers and phased array systems with the latest modeling technology.

Li-Co-Mn-Ni oxides have been of extreme interest as potential positive electrode materials for next generation Li-ion batteries.  Though many promising materials have been discovered and studied extensively, much debate remains in the literature about the structures of these materials. There is no consensus as to whether the lithium-rich layered materials are single-phase or form a layered-layered composite on the few nanometer length-scales. Much of this debate came about because no phase diagrams existed to describe these systems under the synthesis conditions used to make electrode materials.  Detailed in this thesis are the complete Li-Co-Mn-O and Li-Mn-Ni-O phase diagrams generated by way of the combinatorial synthesis of mg-scale samples at over five hundred compositions characterized with X-ray diffraction. Selected bulk samples were used to confirm that the findings are relevant to synthesis conditions used commercially. The results help resolve a number of points of confusion and contradiction in the literature. Amongst other important findings, the compositions and synthesis conditions giving rise to layered-layered nano-composites are presented and electrochemical results are used to show how better electrode materials can be achieved by making samples in the single phase-layered regions.

The behavior of nanoscale materials can change rapidly with time either because the environment changes rapidly or because the influence of the environment propagates quickly across the intrinsically small dimensions of nanoscale materials. Extremely fast time resolution studies using X-rays, electrons and neutrons are of very high interest to many researchers and is a fast-evolving and interesting field for the study of dynamic processes. Therefore, in situ structural characterization and measurements of structure-property relationships covering several decades of length and time scales (from atoms to millimeters and femtoseconds to hours) with high spatial and temporal resolutions are crucially important to understand the synthesis and behavior of multidimensional materials. The techniques described in this book will permit access to the real-time dynamics of materials, surface processes and chemical and biological reactions at various time scales. This book provides an interdisciplinary reference for research using in situ techniques to capture the real-time structural and property responses of materials to surrounding fields using electron, optical and x-ray microscopies (e.g. scanning, transmission and low-energy electron microscopy and scanning probe microscopy) or in the scattering realm with x-ray, neutron and electron diffraction.

This book is written for scientists involved in the calibration of viscometers. A detailed description for stepping up procedures to establish the viscosity scale and obtaining sets of master viscometers is given in the book. Uncertainty considerations for standard oils of known viscosity are presented. The modern viscometers based on principles of tuning fork, ultrasonic, PZT, plate waves, Love waves, micro-cantilever and vibration of optical fiber are discussed to inspire the reader to further research and to generate improved versions. The primary standard for viscosity is pure water. Measurements of its viscosity with accuracy/uncertainty achieved are described. The principles of rotational and oscillation viscometers are explained to enhance the knowledge in calibration work. Devices used for specific materials and viscosity in non SI units are discussed with respect to the need to correlate viscosity values obtained by various devices. The description of commercial viscometers meets the needs of the user.

This thesis constitutes a detailed study of functional nanostructures (ferromagnetic, superconducting, metallic and semiconducting) fabricated by focused electron/ion beam induced deposition techniques. The nanostructures were grown using different precursor materials such as Co2(CO)8, Fe2(CO)9, W(CO)6, (CH3)3Pt(CpCH3) and were characterized by a wide range of techniques. This work reports results obtained for the morphology, the microstructure, the composition, the electrical transport mechanism, magnetic and superconducting properties of nanostructures. The results offers exciting prospects in a wide range of applications in nanotechnology and condensed matter physics.

Ellipsometry is the method of choice to determine the properties of surfaces and thin films. It provides comprehensive and sensitive characterization in contactless and non-invasive measurements. This book gives a state-of-the-art survey of ellipsometric investigations of organic films and surfaces, from laboratory to synchrotron applications, with a special focus on in-situ use in processing environments and at solid-liquid interfaces. In conjunction with the development of functional organic, meta- and hybrid materials for new optical, electronic, sensing and biotechnological devices and fabrication advances, the ellipsometric analysis of their optical and material properties has progressed rapidly in the recent years.

High-temperature and high-pressure treatment of diamond is becoming an important technology to elaborate diamonds. This is the first book providing a comprehensive review of the properties of HPHT-treated diamonds, based on the analysis of published data and the work of the authors. The book gives a detailed analysis of the physics of transformation of internal structures of diamonds subjected to HPHT treatment and discusses how these transformations can be detected using methods of optical microscopy and spectroscopy. It also gives practical recommendations for the recognition of HPHT-treated diamonds. The book is written in a language and terms which can be understood by a broad audience of physicists, mineralogists and gemologists.

The book introduces the oscillatory reaction and pattern formation in the Belousov-Zhabotinsky (BZ) reaction that became model for investigating a wide range of intriguing pattern formations in chemical systems. So many modifications in classic version of BZ reaction have been carried out in various experimental conditions that demonstrate rich varieties of temporal oscillations and spatio-temporal patterns in non- equilibrium conditions. Mixed-mode versions of BZ reactions, which comprise a pair of organic substrates or dual metal catalysts, have displayed very complex oscillating behaviours and novel space-time patterns during reaction processes. These characteristic spatio-temporal properties of BZ reactions have attracted increasing attention of the scientific community in recent years because of its comparable periodic structures in electrochemical systems, polymerization processes, and non-equilibrium crystallization phenomena. Instead, non-equilibrium crystallization phenomena which lead to development of novel crystal morphologies in constraint of thermodynamic equilibrium conditions have been investigated and are said to be stationary periodic structures. Efforts have continued to analyze insight mechanisms and roles of reaction-diffusion mechanism and self-organization in the growth of such periodic crystal patterns. In this book, non-equilibrium crystallization phenomena, leading to growth of some novel crystal patterns in dual organic substrate modes of oscillatory BZ reactions have been discussed. Efforts have been made to find out experimental parameters where transitions of the spherulitic crystal patterns take place. The book provides the scientific community and entrepreneurs with a thorough understanding and knowledge of the growth and form of branched crystal pattern in reaction-diffusion system and their morphological transition.

"Ceramic Materials: Science and Engineering" is an up-to-date treatment of ceramic science, engineering, and applications in a single, comprehensive text. Building on a foundation of crystal structures, phase equilibria, defects, and the mechanical properties of ceramic materials, students are shown how these materials are processed for a wide diversity of applications in today's society. Concepts such as how and why ions move, how ceramics interact with light and magnetic fields, and how they respond to temperature changes are discussed in the context of their applications. References to the art and history of ceramics are included throughout the text, and a chapter is devoted to ceramics as gemstones. This course-tested text now includes expanded chapters on the role of ceramicsin industry and their impact on the environment as well asa chapter devoted to applications of ceramic materials in clean energy technologies. Also new are expanded sets of text-specific homework problems and other resources for instructors. The revised and updated Second Editionis further enhanced with color illustrations throughout the text."

This book deals with colloidal systems in technical processes and the influence of colloidal systems by technical processes. It explores how new measurement capabilities can offer the potential for a dynamic development of scientific and engineering, and examines the origin of colloidal systems and its use for new products. The future challenges to colloidal process engineering are the development of appropriate equipment and processes for the production and obtainment of multi-phase structures and energetic interactions in market-relevant quantities. The book explores the relevant processes and for controlled production and how they can be used across all scales.

This thesis presents an in-depth study on the effect of colloidal particle shape and formation mechanism on self-organization and the final crystal symmetries that can be achieved. It demonstrates how state-of-the-art X-ray diffraction techniques can be used to produce detailed characterizations of colloidal crystal structures prepared using different self-assembly techniques, and how smart systems can be used to investigate defect formation and diffusion in-situ. One of the most remarkable phenomena exhibited by concentrated suspensions of colloidal particles is the spontaneous self-organization into structures with long-range spatial and/or orientational orders. The study also reveals the subtle structural variations that arise by changing the particle shape from spherical to that of a rounded cube. In particular, the roundness of the cube corners, when combined with the self-organization pathway, convective assembly or sedimentation, was shown to influence the final crystal symmetries.

This exhaustive work in three volumes with featuring cross-reference system provides a thorough overview of ultra-high temperature materials – from elements and chemical compounds to alloys and composites. Topics included are physical (crystallographic, thermodynamic, thermo-physical, electrical, optical, physico-mechanical, nuclear) and chemical (solid-state diffusion, interaction with chemical elements and compounds, interaction with gases, vapours and aqueous solutions) properties of the individual physico-chemical phases and multi-phase materials with melting (or sublimation) points over or about 2500 °C. The first volume focuses on carbon (graphite/graphene) and refractory metals (W, Re, Os, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir). The second and third volumes are dedicated solely to refractory (ceramic) compounds (oxides, nitrides, carbides, borides, silicides) and to the complex materials – refractory alloys, carbon and ceramic composites, respectively. It will be of interest to researchers, engineers, postgraduate, graduate and undergraduate students in various disciplines alike. The reader is provided with the full qualitative and quantitative assessment for the materials, which could be applied in various engineering devices and environmental conditions at ultra-high temperatures, on the basis of the latest updates in the field of physics, chemistry, materials science, nanotechnology and engineering.  

This book summarizes the main methods of experimental stress analysis and examines their application to various states of stress of major technical interest, highlighting aspects not always covered in the classic literature. It is explained how experimental stress analysis assists in the verification and completion of analytical and numerical models, the development of phenomenological theories, the measurement and control of system parameters under operating conditions, and identification of causes of failure or malfunction. Cases addressed include measurement of the state of stress in models, measurement of actual loads on structures, verification of stress states in circumstances of complex numerical modeling, assessment of stress-related material damage, and reliability analysis of artifacts (e.g. prostheses) that interact with biological systems. The book will serve graduate students and professionals as a valuable tool for finding solutions when analytical solutions do not exist.

This book delivers a comprehensive evaluation of organic and hybrid solar cells and identifies their fundamental principles and numerous applications. Great attention is given to the charge transport mechanism, donor and acceptor materials, interfacial materials, alternative electrodes, device engineering and physics, and device stability. The authors provide an industrial perspective on the future of photovoltaic technologies.

This thesis describes novel approaches and implementation of high-resolution microscopy in the extreme ultraviolet light regime. Using coherent ultrafast laser-generated short wavelength radiation for illuminating samples allows imaging beyond the resolution of visible-light microscopes. Michael Zürch gives a comprehensive overview of the fundamentals and techniques involved, starting from the laser-based frequency conversion scheme and its technical implementation as well as general considerations of diffraction-based imaging at nanoscopic spatial resolution. Experiments on digital in-line holography and coherent diffraction imaging of artificial and biologic specimens are demonstrated and discussed in this book. In the field of biologic imaging, a novel award-winning cell classification scheme and its first experimental application for identifying breast cancer cells are introduced. Finally, this book presents a newly developed technique of generating structured illumination by means of so-called optical vortex beams in the extreme ultraviolet regime and proposes its general usability for super-resolution imaging.

Providing a comprehensive and invaluable overview of the basics of crystallographic textures and their industrial applications, this book covers a broad range of both structural and functional materials. It introduces the existing methods of representation in an accessible manner and presents a thorough overview of existing knowledge on texture of metallic materials. Texture analysis has widespread use in many industries, and provides crucial input towards the development of new materials and products. There has been rapid growth in the science and art of  texture analysis in the last few decades. Other topics addressed within this book include recent research on texture in thin films and non-metals, and the dependence of material properties on texture, and texture control in some engineering materials. This book constitutes an invaluable reference text for researchers and professionals working on texture analysis in metallurgy, materials science and engineering, physics and geology. By using content selectively, it is also highly accessible to undergraduate students.

The book presents twelve state of the art contributions in the field of numerical modeling of materials subjected to large strain, high strain rates, large pressure and high stress triaxialities, organized into two sections. The first part is focused on high strain rate-high pressures such as those occurring in impact dynamics and shock compression related phenomena, dealing with material response identification, advanced modeling incorporating microstructure and damage, stress waves propagation in solids and structures response under impact. The latter part is focused on large strain-low strain rates applications such as those occurring in technological material processing, dealing with microstructure and texture evolution, material response at elevated temperatures, structural behavior under large strain and multi axial state of stress.

The idea of this monograph is to present the latest results related to design and computation of engineering materials and structures. The contributions cover the classical fields of mechanical, civil and materials engineering up to biomechanics and advanced materials processing and optimization. The materials and structures covered can be categorized into modern steels and titanium alloys, composite materials, biological and natural materials, material hybrids and modern joining technologies. Analytical modelling, numerical simulation, the application of state-of-the-art design tools and sophisticated experimental techniques are applied to characterize the performance of materials and to design and optimize structures in different fields of engineering applications.

This thesis introduces a series of novel, non-conjugated polyarylether hosts that are not subject to the triplet-energy limitations of traditional conjugated polymer hosts. As a result of this major breakthrough, the long-standing problem of triplet energy back transfer has now been overcome, making it possible to design high-efficiency electrophosphorescent polymers (PhPs), especially the blue and all-phosphorescent white ones. In addition, the author proposes a spiro-linked hyperbranched architecture for PhPs to inhibit the undesired triplet energy back transfer process in low triplet-energy hosts. The work in this thesis provides vital new insights into the design of PhPs and has led to several publications in high-profile journals.

This volume describes the most recent findings on the structure of ILs interpreted through cutting-edge experimental and theoretical methods. Research in the field of ionic liquids (ILs) keeps a fast and steady pace. Since these new-generation molten salts first appeared in the chemistry and physics landscape, a large number of new compounds has been synthesized. Most of them display unexpected behaviour and possess stunning properties. The coverage in this book ranges from the mesoscopic structure of ILs to their interaction with proteins. The reader will learn how diffraction techniques (small and large angle X-Ray and neutron scattering, powder methods), X-Ray absorption spectroscopies (EXAFS/XANES), optical methods (IR, RAMAN), NMR and calorimetric methods can help the study of ILs, both as neat liquids and in mixtures with other compounds. It will enable the reader to choose the best method to suit their experimental needs. A detailed survey of theoretical methods, both quantum-chemical and classical, and of their predictive power will accompany the exposition of experimental ones. This book is a must read for postgraduate students, for post-docs, and for researchers who are interested in understanding the structural properties of ILs.

This book presents, in a self-contained fashion, a series of studies on flow and heat transfer in porous media, in which distinct energy balances are considered for the porous matrix and for the permeating fluid. Detailed mathematical modeling is presented considering both volume and time averaging operators simultaneously applied to the governing equations. System involving combustion in the gaseous phase, moving bed and double-diffusion mechanism are analyzed. Numerical results are presented for each case. In the end, this book contains the description of a tool that might benefit engineers in developing and designing more efficient thermal equipment.

This book is about the pattern formation and the evolution of crack propagation in engineering materials and structures, bridging mathematical analyses of cracks based on singular integral equations, to computational simulation of engineering design. The first two parts of this book focus on elasticity and fracture and provide the basis for discussions on fracture morphology and its numerical simulation, which may lead to a simulation-based fracture control in engineering structures. Several design concepts are discussed for the prevention of fatigue and fracture in engineering structures, including safe-life design, fail-safe design, damage tolerant design. After starting with basic elasticity and fracture theories in parts one and two, this book focuses on the fracture morphology that develops due to the propagation of brittle cracks or fatigue cracks. In part three, the mathematical analysis of a curved crack is precisely described, based on the perturbation method. The stability theory of interactive cracks propagating in brittle solids may help readers to understand the formation of a fractal-like cracking patterns in brittle solids, while the stability theory of crack paths helps to identify the straight versus sharply curved or sometimes wavy crack paths observed in brittle solids. In part four, the numerical simulation method of a system of multiple cracks is introduced by means of the finite element method, which may be used for the better implementation of fracture control in engineering structures. This book is part of a series on "Mathematics for Industry" and will appeal to structural engineers seeking to understand the basic backgrounds of analyses, but also to mathematicians with an interest in how such mathematical solutions are evaluated in industrial applications.

The book is about calorimetry and thermal analysis methods, alone or linked to other techniques, as applied to the characterization of catalysts, supports and adsorbents, and to the study of catalytic reactions in various domains: air and wastewater treatment, clean and renewable energies, refining of hydrocarbons, green chemistry, hydrogen production and storage. The book is intended to fill the gap between the basic thermodynamic and kinetics concepts acquired by students during their academic formation, and the use of experimental techniques such as thermal analysis and calorimetry to answer practical questions. Moreover, it supplies insights into the various thermal and calorimetric methods which can be employed in studies aimed at characterizing the physico-chemical properties of solid adsorbents, supports and catalysts, and the processes related to the adsorption desorption phenomena of the reactants and/or products of catalytic reactions. The book also covers the basic concepts for physico-chemical comprehension of the relevant phenomena. Thermodynamic and kinetic aspects of the catalytic reactions can be fruitfully investigated by means of thermal analysis and calorimetric methods, in order to better understand the sequence of the elemental steps in the catalysed reaction. So the fundamental theory behind the various thermal analysis and calorimetric techniques and methods also are illustrated.

Particulate products make up around 80% of chemical products, from all industry sectors. Examples given in this book include the construction materials, fine ceramics and concrete; the delicacies, chocolate and ice cream; pharmaceutical, powders, medical inhalers and sun screen; liquid and powder paints. Size distribution and the shape of the particles provide for different functionalities in these products. Some functions are general, others specific. General functions are powder flow and require - at the typical particulate concentrations of these products - that the particles cause adequate rheological behavior during processing and/or for product performance. Therefore, this book addresses particle packing as well as its relation to powder flow and rheological behavior. Moreover, general relationships to particle size are discussed for e.g. color and sensorial aspects of particulate products. Product-specific functionalities are often relevant for comparable product groups. Particle size distribution and shape provide, for example, the following functionalities: - dense particle packing in relation to sufficient strength is required in concrete construction, ceramic objects and pharmaceutical tablets - good sensorial properties (mouthfeel) to chocolate and ice cream - effective dissolution, flow and compression properties for pharmaceutical powders - adequate hiding power and effective coloring of paints for protection and the desired esthetical appeal of the objects - adequate protection of our body against sun light by sunscreen - effective particle transport and deposition to desired locations for medical inhalers and powder paints. Adequate particle size distribution, shape and porosity of particulate products have to be achieved in order to reach optimum product performance. This requires adequate management of design and development as well as sufficient knowledge of the underlying principles of physics and chemistry. Moreover, flammability, explosivity and other health hazards from powders, during handling, are taken into account. This is necessary, since great risks may be involved. In all aspects, the most relevant parameters of the size distribution (and particle shape) have to be selected. In this book, experts in the different product fields have contributed to the product chapters. This provides optimum information on what particulate aspects are most relevant for behavior and performance within specified industrial products and how optimum results can be obtained. It differs from other books in the way that the critical aspects of different products are reported, so that similarities and differences can be identified. We trust that this approach will lead to improved optimization in design, development and quality of many particulate products.

Composites are widely used in marine applications. There is considerable experience of glass reinforced resins in boats and ships but these are usually not highly loaded. However, for new areas such as offshore and ocean energy there is a need for highly loaded structures to survive harsh conditions for 20 years or more. High performance composites are therefore being proposed. This book provides an overview of the state of the art in predicting the long term durability of composite marine structures. The following points are covered: •       Modelling water diffusion •       Damage induced by water •       Accelerated testing •       Including durability in design •       In-service experience. This is essential reading for all those involved with composites in the marine industry, from initial design and calculation through to manufacture and service exploitation. It also provides information unavailable elsewhere on the mechanisms involved in degradation and how to take account of them. Ensuring long term durability is not only necessary for safety reasons, but will also determine the economic viability of future marine structures.