Diagnostic Expertise in Organizational Environments provides a state-of-the-art foundation for a new paradigm in expertise research and practice. Skilled diagnosis is essential for accurate and efficient performance across a range of organizational contexts, including aviation, finance, rail, forensic investigation, firefighting, and medicine. However, it is also a complex process, subject to the abilities and experience of individual operators, the culture and practices of organizations, the relationships between operators, and the availability and usefulness of technology. As a consequence, diagnostic skills can be difficult to learn, maintain, and evaluate. This volume is a comprehensive approach that examines diagnostic expertise at the level of the individual practitioner, in the social context, and at the organizational level. The chapter authors comprise both academics and highly skilled practitioners so that there is a clear transition from understanding the problem of diagnostic skills to the implementation of solutions, either through redesign, training, and/or selection. It will appeal to those academics and practitioners interested and involved in this field and also prove useful to students of psychology, cognitive science education and/or computer interaction.

Self-Organizing Natural Intelligence brings new scientific methods to intelligence research that is currently under the influence of largely classical 19th century single causal theory and method. This out-dated classical approach has resulted in the single-capacity g-theory, a central processor, top-down, genetically determined linguistic view of intelligence that is directly contradicted by empirical facts of human and animal studies of intelligence.This book proposes, utilizes, and demonstrates the research superiority of a highly developed multidisciplinary theory models approach to intelligence. With conceptual tools, concepts and mathematical methods more suited to continuous, dynamic phenomena of living things, the entire scope of natural intelligence based upon empirical studies of actual human and animal experience is addressed...

Unlocking Creativity in Solving Novel Mathematics Problems delivers a fascinating insight into thinking and feeling approaches used in creative problem solving and explores whether attending to 'feeling' makes any difference to solving novel problems successfully. With a focus on research throughout, this book reveals ways of identifying, describing and measuring 'feeling' (or 'intuition') in problem-solving processes. It details construction of a new creative problem-solving conceptual framework using cognitive and non-cognitive elements, including the brain's visuo-spatial and linguistic circuits, conscious and non-conscious mental activity, and the generation of feeling in listening to the self, identified from verbal data. This framework becomes the process model for developing a comprehensive quantitative model of creative problem solving incorporating the Person, Product, Process and Environment dimensions of creativity. In a world constantly seeking new ideas and new approaches to solving complex problems, the application of this book's findings will revolutionize the way students, teachers, businesses and industries approach novel problem solving, and mathematics learning and teaching.

Causal reasoning is one of our most central cognitive competencies, enabling us to adapt to our world. Causal knowledge allows us to predict future events, or diagnose the causes of observed facts. We plan actions and solve problems using knowledge about cause-effect relations. Although causal reasoning is a component of most of our cognitive functions, it has been neglected in cognitive psychology for many decades. The Oxford Handbook of Causal Reasoning offers a state-of-the-art review of the growing field, and its contribution to the world of cognitive science. The Handbook begins with an introduction of competing theories of causal learning and reasoning. In the next section, it presents research about basic cognitive functions involved in causal cognition, such as perception, categorization, argumentation, decision-making, and induction. The following section examines research on domains that embody causal relations, including intuitive physics, legal and moral reasoning, psychopathology, language, social cognition, and the roles of space and time. The final section presents research from neighboring fields that study developmental, phylogenetic, and cultural differences in causal cognition. The chapters, each written by renowned researchers in their field, fill in the gaps of many cognitive psychology textbooks, emphasizing the crucial role of causal structures in our everyday lives. This Handbook is an essential read for students and researchers of the cognitive sciences, including cognitive, developmental, social, comparative, and cross-cultural psychology; philosophy; methodology; statistics; artificial intelligence; and machine learning.

Who is the 'Devil'? And what is he due? The Devil is anyone who disagrees with you. And what he is due is the right to speak his mind. He must have this for your own safety's sake because his freedom is inextricably tied to your own. If he can be censored, why shouldn't you be censored? If we put barriers up to silence 'unpleasant' ideas, what's to stop the silencing of any discussion? This book is a full-throated defense of free speech and open inquiry in politics, science, and culture by the New York Times bestselling author and skeptic Michael Shermer. The new collection of essays and articles takes the Devil by the horns by tackling five key themes: free thought and free speech, politics and society, scientific humanism, religion, and the ideas of controversial intellectuals. For our own sake, we must give the Devil his due.

Can problems be solved by setting them aside or by sleeping on them? Incubation, the process of stopping conscious work on problems for a set period of time, is an integral part of the creative problem solving process. Providing an overview of the main issues, findings and implications of cognitive research on incubation effects in problem solving and creativity, this book argues that incubation is an effective strategy for tackling problems that do not yield to initial solution attempts. Gilhooly reasons that unconscious work is automatic and explores the underlying processes involved in incubation, providing evidence to showcase the major role of unconscious processing in problem solving. Incubation in Problem Solving and Creativity concludes with a discussion of the implications of unconscious work theory for enhanced problem solving, positioning incubation as an effective and important stage in creative problem solving. This book is an invaluable resource for students and researchers of problem solving, creativity and thinking and reasoning as well as for students from all disciplines taking problem solving modules.

In the World Library of Psychologists series, international experts present career-long collections of what they judge to be their most interesting publications - extracts from books, key articles, research findings, practical and theoretical contributions. Professor Patrick Rabbitt has been a prominent contributor to knowledge of cognitive performance and cognitive ageing for over half a century. He has made a range of significant contributions to geronotological research, from the development of information processing theories in the 1950s and 1960s to a new understanding of decision making and the ageing process in subsequent decades. This collection of his research articles represents a review of how work in cognitive performance and cognitive ageing has developed in the past 50 years. Whilst the nature of scientific research means that some of the questions posed have since been answered, Rabbitt adds introductory sections to articles which contextualise its place in the subject area and offer a personal view on the evolution of the field. This book is important because it provides a perspective on the development of cognitive research and the ageing process through the work of an active researcher in the field. It will interest all students and researchers interested in cognitive development and gerontology.

A Tested, Proven Approach to Problem Solving-Updated with New Material and Current, Real-Life Examples Strategies for Creative Problem Solving, Third Edition, will help you hone your creative skills and apply those skills to solve nearly any problem. Drawing on National Science Foundation-funded, advanced research that studied problem-solving techniques in all areas of modern industry, this book presents a comprehensive, systematic problem-solving framework. Through hands-on techniques and exercises drawing on realistic examples, you will learn how to approach an ill-defined problem, identify the real problem, generate and implement the best solution, evaluate what you've learned, and build on that knowledge. This third edition has been updated and revised, further enhancing its value for engineers, technical practitioners, students, and anyone who wants to improve their problem-solving skills. Updates include More than twenty-five new examples-based on recent, real-world events and topics-that illustrate the various problem-solving techniques Expanded coverage of critical thinking and reasoning An introduction to structured critical reasoning New discussion of managing complex change Expanded and improved explanations of the components of problem-solving strategies The first edition of this book earned ASEE's 1996 Meriam-Wiley Distinguished Author Award, and now it's more focused and useful than ever. Companion Web Site The book's companion Web site (www.engin.umich.edu/scps) is a valuable resource for students and instructors. The site contains Interactive Computer Modules: Seven simulations linked to the book's content and designed to deepen your expertise with every stage of the problem-solving process Summary Notes: Chapter-specific material that highlights important points in each chapter-excellent for classroom presentations and concept review Professional Reference Shelf: Additional examples and problem-solving materials Additional Study Materials: Course syllabi and Web links to related material

The Routledge International Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning is an authoritative reference work providing a balanced overview of current scholarship spanning the full breadth of the rapidly developing and expanding field of thinking and reasoning. It contains 35 chapters written by leading international researchers, covering foundational issues as well as state-of-the-art developments in thinking and reasoning research. Topics covered range across all sub-areas of thinking and reasoning, including deduction, induction, abduction, judgment, decision making, argumentation, problem solving, expertise, creativity and rationality. The contributors engage with cutting-edge debates such as the status of dual-process theories of thinking, the role of unconscious, intuitive, emotional and metacognitive processes in thinking, and the importance of probabilistic conceptualisations of thinking and reasoning. Authors also examine the importance of neuroscientific findings in informing theoretical developments, and explore the situated nature of thinking and reasoning across a range of real-world contexts such as mathematics, medicine and science. The Handbook provides a clear sense of the way in which contemporary ideas are challenging traditional viewpoints as "new paradigm of the psychology of reasoning" emerges. This paradigm-shifting research is paving the way toward a richer and more inclusive understanding of thinking and reasoning, where important new questions drive a forward-looking research agenda. It is essential reading for both established researchers in the field of thinking and reasoning as well as advanced students wishing to learn more about both the historical foundations and latest developments in this rapidly growing field.

This comprehensive volume addresses the important question of whether and how the current transformation of targeted killing is transforming the global international order. The age-old practice of targeted killing has undergone a profound transformation since the turn of the millennium. States resort to it more frequently, especially in the context of counter-terrorism operations. The rapid development of surveillance and drone technologies facilitates targeted-killing missions, and states are starting to slowly abandon their policies of secrecy and denial with regard to this form of violence. To answer this question, the volume introduces a theoretical framework that conceives the maintenance and transformation of international order as a dynamic, triangular process between violence, discourse, and the institutions that make up the international order. It then sheds light on different parts of this triangular process: the reinterpretation of international law to legitimize targeted killing, the contestation between state and non-state actors over the development of a new targeted-killing norm, the emergence of targeted killing in the context of changes in the broader normative context of international order, and the impact of new technologies, in particular autonomous weapons systems, on the future of targeted-killing practices and international order. This book was originally published as a special issue of Contemporary Security Policy.

This book brings together an influential sequence of papers that argue for a radical re-conceptualisation of the psychology of inference, and of cognitive science more generally. The papers demonstrate that the thesis that logic provides the basis of human inference is central to much cognitive science, although the commitment to this view is often implicit. They then note that almost all human inference is uncertain, whereas logic is the calculus of certain inference. This mismatch means that logic is not the appropriate model for human thought. Oaksford and Chater's argument draws on research in computer science, artificial intelligence and philosophy of science, in addition to experimental psychology. The authors propose that probability theory, the calculus of uncertain inference, provides a more appropriate model for human thought. They show how a probabilistic account can provide detailed explanations of experimental data on Wason's selection task, which many have viewed as providing a paradigmatic demonstration of human irrationality. Oaksford and Chater show that people's behaviour appears irrational only from a logical point of view, whereas it is entirely rational from a probabilistic perspective. The shift to a probabilistic framework for human inference has significant implications for the psychology of reasoning, cognitive science more generally, and forour picture of ourselves as rational agents.

3-System Theory of the Cognitive Brain: A Post-Piagetian Approach to Cognitive Development puts forward Olivier Houde's 3-System theory of the cognitive brain, based on numerous post-Piagetian psychological and brain imaging data acquired from children and adults. This ground-breaking theory simultaneously anchors itself in a deep understanding of the history of psychology and fuels current debates on thinking, reasoning and cognitive development. Spanning the long-term history of psychology, from Plato and Aristotle to more current experimental psychology, this pioneering work goes beyond the approaches of Kahneman (i.e. System 1 theory) and Piaget (i.e. System 2 theory) to put forward a theory in which the inhibitory-control system (i.e. System 3) takes precedence. Houde argues that the brain contains a third control system located in the prefrontal cortex which is dedicated to inhibiting Kahneman's intuitive heuristics system and activating Piaget's logical algorithms system anywhere in the brain on a case-by-case basis, depending on the goal and context of the task. 3-System Theory of the Cognitive Brain simultaneously explains the early logical abilities discovered in babies, the dynamic, strategic and non-linear process of cognitive development in children, and the fast heuristics and biases observed in adults. Houde considers the exciting implications of this theory on neuro-education using examples from the classroom. This book is essential reading for students and researchers in cognitive development and education, child psychology, reasoning and neurosciences.

3-System Theory of the Cognitive Brain: A Post-Piagetian Approach to Cognitive Development puts forward Olivier Houde's 3-System theory of the cognitive brain, based on numerous post-Piagetian psychological and brain imaging data acquired from children and adults. This ground-breaking theory simultaneously anchors itself in a deep understanding of the history of psychology and fuels current debates on thinking, reasoning and cognitive development. Spanning the long-term history of psychology, from Plato and Aristotle to more current experimental psychology, this pioneering work goes beyond the approaches of Kahneman (i.e. System 1 theory) and Piaget (i.e. System 2 theory) to put forward a theory in which the inhibitory-control system (i.e. System 3) takes precedence. Houde argues that the brain contains a third control system located in the prefrontal cortex which is dedicated to inhibiting Kahneman's intuitive heuristics system and activating Piaget's logical algorithms system anywhere in the brain on a case-by-case basis, depending on the goal and context of the task. 3-System Theory of the Cognitive Brain simultaneously explains the early logical abilities discovered in babies, the dynamic, strategic and non-linear process of cognitive development in children, and the fast heuristics and biases observed in adults. Houde considers the exciting implications of this theory on neuro-education using examples from the classroom. This book is essential reading for students and researchers in cognitive development and education, child psychology, reasoning and neurosciences.

Examining the thematic intersection of law, technology and violence, this book explores cyber attacks against states and current international law on the use of force. The theory of information ethics is used to critique the law's conception of violence and to develop an informational approach as an alternative way to think about cyber attacks. Cyber attacks against states constitute a new form of violence in the information age, and international law on the use of force is limited in its capacity to regulate them. This book draws on Luciano Floridi's theory of information ethics to critique the narrow conception of violence embodied in the law and to develop an alternative way to think about cyber attacks, violence, and the state. The author uses three case studies - the 2007 cyber attacks against Estonia, the Stuxnet incident involving Iran that was discovered in 2010, and the cyber attacks used as part of the Russian interference in the 2016 US presidential election - to demonstrate that an informational approach offers a means to reimagine the state as an entity and cyber attacks as a form of violence against it. This interdisciplinary approach will appeal to an international audience of scholars in international law, international relations, security studies, cyber security, and anyone interested in the issues surrounding emerging technologies.

Originally published in 1978, the main task of this book was to consider the psychology of thinking in relation to the various perspectives from which thought processes were studied at the time. It provided an up-to-date and critical evaluation of current experimental studies of thinking organized within a framework which reflects the separate theoretical orientations and methodologies through which these investigations are carried out. This approach will help the reader to become aware of the complex relationship between the theoretical orientations, the problems selected for investigation and the methods used for studying them. An important underlying theme of the book concerns the relationship between the activities of the thinker and the demands of his environment. As far as is known, this was the only textbook on thinking to deal with the subject matter specifically in terms of theoretical approaches and methods of investigation at the time.

The Comprehension of Jokes consolidates and develops the tradition of analysing jokes, by defining a framework of concepts which are suited to capturing what happens when someone understands a joke. The collection of concepts presented improves upon past work on joke analysis, outlining a simple model of text comprehension which supports all the assumptions necessary for a model of joke-understanding. This proposed framework encompasses and integrates a relatively wide range of disparate factors, including incongruity, superiority, and impropriety. Written by an expert in the field of humour, it provides a conceptual basis which will help to map out the landscape of joke comprehension. The book draws on past suggestions in many areas, primarily philosophy, psychology, linguistics, and artificial intelligence. Current theories of how people understand non-humorous texts offer some important ideas, such as the need for representations of differing beliefs about the world, or the way that predictions may occur during the understanding of a text. The framework improves the clarity and coherence of some existing theoretical proposals and combines these ideas into a well-defined way of describing how a person understands a newly-encountered joke. All this is illustrated using typical textual jokes, some analysed in considerable detail. The book enables hypotheses about why jokes are funny to be stated more precisely and compared more easily, and should contribute to the development of a fuller cognitive model of joke comprehension. The Comprehension of Jokes will be of great interest to academics and postgraduate students in humour research, as well as those in disciplines like linguistics, psychology, and cognitive science who wish to explore the field of jokes and humour.

Originally published in 1978, The Process of Question Answering examines a phenomenon that relies on many realms of human cognition: language comprehension, memory retrieval, and language generation. Problems in computational question answering assume a new perspective when question answering is viewed as a problem in natural language processing. A theory of human question answering must necessarily entail a theory of human memory organization and theories of the cognitive processes that access and manipulate information in memory. This book describes question answering as a particular task in information processing. The theoretical models described here have been built on a formulation of general theories in natural language processing: theories about language that were developed without the specific problem of question answering in mind. By requiring programmers to be concerned with the precise form of information in memory, and the precise operations manipulating that information, they can uncover significant problems that would otherwise be overlooked. An early insight into artificial intelligence, today this reissue can be enjoyed in its historical context.

Research on insight problem solving examines how new ideas are generated to solve problems that initially resist the application of prior knowledge or analogue solutions. In the laboratory, insight problems are designed to create an impasse; overcoming the impasse is sometimes accompanied by a distinctive phenomenological experience, the so-called Aha! moment. Insight: On the Origins of New Ideas presents research that captures these episodes of insight under laboratory conditions and informs models that account for their emergence. Descriptions and analyses of episodes of discovery both in and out of the laboratory are included to provide a general overview of insight. Featuring contributions from leading researchers, the volume debates the relative importance of intelligence and working memory, the development of an alternative interpretation of the problem based on deliberate analyses and heuristics, and unconscious inferences in the emergence of insight. These discussions generate new testable hypotheses to shed light on the cognitive processes underpinning insight, along with concrete methodological recommendations that, together, map a productive programme of future research. This book will be of interest to students and researchers of thinking and reasoning - specifically those interested in insight and creative problem solving.

To date we have only a fragmentary understanding of the thought processes that engender insightful solutions to problems that require a change in representation or the discovery of distant associations to presented information. We likewise have only a piecemeal understanding of the thinking that underpins creative problem solving, where solutions are needed that are new to the solver. Recently there has been a growing interest in removing the mystery from insight and creativity through better specified theories and theory-driven experimentation. The chapters in this volume reflect key developments in this expanding field of insight and creativity research. Collectively, the chapters converge on a nuanced view of insight and creative thinking as often arising from the interplay between two qualitatively distinct types of processes that interact to yield sudden, surprising and innovative solutions to problems that initially seemed impenetrable and resistant to the application of inventive ideas. This dual-process perspective, which capitalises on the distinction between 'special' (automatic, unconscious and associative) Type 1 processes and 'routine' (controlled, conscious and analytic) Type 2 processes, helps advance a theoretical understanding of insight and creativity, whilst also provoking important new research questions. This book was originally published as a special issue of Thinking and Reasoning.

To date we have only a fragmentary understanding of the thought processes that engender insightful solutions to problems that require a change in representation or the discovery of distant associations to presented information. We likewise have only a piecemeal understanding of the thinking that underpins creative problem solving, where solutions are needed that are new to the solver. Recently there has been a growing interest in removing the mystery from insight and creativity through better specified theories and theory-driven experimentation. The chapters in this volume reflect key developments in this expanding field of insight and creativity research. Collectively, the chapters converge on a nuanced view of insight and creative thinking as often arising from the interplay between two qualitatively distinct types of processes that interact to yield sudden, surprising and innovative solutions to problems that initially seemed impenetrable and resistant to the application of inventive ideas. This dual-process perspective, which capitalises on the distinction between 'special' (automatic, unconscious and associative) Type 1 processes and 'routine' (controlled, conscious and analytic) Type 2 processes, helps advance a theoretical understanding of insight and creativity, whilst also provoking important new research questions. This book was originally published as a special issue of Thinking and Reasoning.

"...it is extremely useful and contemporary, covering among its five hundred pages, genetics, neuro-imaging and emotional intelligence. It also provides a good indicator of current psychological work in the area with empirical evidence and theory sitting alongside each other. The material on meta-cognition would, I suspect, be of most interest to philosophers, along with the more basic questions concerning the nature of memory and intelligence." -PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY "This volume provides an in-depth yet accessible and up-to-date review of the key topics pertinent to current intelligence research. This state-of-the-art summary about our theoretical understanding of human abilities and their measurement is of interest for researchers, practitioners, and advanced students in psychology, education, and related disciplines. It's a great summary and a good read on a truly important topic." -Dr. Heinz Holling, University of Muenster "Wilhelm and Engle have compiled a highly informative set of chapters on various topics related to intelligence. The chapters describing recent European work will be especially informative for North American readers. The work is strengthened by provision of review chapters that keep the reader in sight of the forest rather than the trees." -Earl Hunt, University of Washington Without an informed cognitive understanding of intelligence as a construct, the technology of intelligence testing will make little to no progress. Psychologists with a more psychometric background need detailed knowledge about the cognitive processes underlying intelligent behavior. Likewise, psychologists with a more cognitive or experimental background need to make more use of applied knowledge from psychometric research. Earl Hunt, Without an informed cognitive understanding of intelligence as a construct, the technology of intelligence testing will make little to no progress. Psychologists with a more psychometric background need detailed knowledge about the cognitive processes underlying intelligent behavior. Likewise, psychologists with a more cognitive or experimental background need to make more use of applied knowledge from psychometric research.The Handbook of Understanding and Measuring Intelligence provides an overview of recent studies on intelligence to help readers develop a sound understanding of results and perspectives in intelligence research. In this volume, editors Oliver Wilhelm and Randall W. Engle bring together a group of respected experts from two fields of intelligence research, cognition and methods, to summarize, review, and evaluate research in their areas of expertise. The chapters in this book present state-of-the-art examinations of a particular domain of intelligence research and highlight important methodological considerations, theoretical claims, and pervasive problems in the field. The Handbook provides those with a broad interest in individual differences, cognitive abilities, intelligence, educational measurement, thinking, reasoning, or problem solving with a comprehensive description of the status quo and prospects of intelligence research. The book is divided into two parts that are intended to build upon and relate to one another. Part I, the cognitive section, explores several theoretical viewpoints on intelligence and Part II, the methodological section, addresses fundamental statistical problems and pragmatic assessment problems in measuring intelligence. Key Features The volume editors provide a general introduction and conclude the book with an integrative epilogue. Contributors to this volume are experts in intelligence with a background in methodology or theory who offer current theoretical perspectives and recent empirical results, which are of interest to a broad audience. In addition to contributions from U.S. intelligence experts, authors from Europe and Australia provide an international perspective and articulate viewpoints and results not otherwise readily available to an American audience. Developments in theory are described with respect to their implications at the measurement level, and developments on the methodological level are evaluated with respect to their contribution to the theoretical understanding of intelligence. The Handbook is designed for scholars and psychology professionals interested in intelligence, cognitive abilities, educational testing and measurement, reasoning, and problem solving. It can also be used by advanced undergraduate and graduate students studying intelligence or the psychology of individual differences. In addition, the Handbook will be a welcome addition to any academic library.

In this concise and lucid survey, originally published in 1972, the author considers the major theoretical perspectives influential in the psychology of thinking at the time. They are looked at in relation to the problems which they are designed to answer and their success in accounting for the experimental evidence.

The core baseline of Intelligence-led Policing is the aim of increasing efficiency and quality of police work, with a focus on crime analysis and intelligence methods as tools for informed and objective decisions both when conducting targeted, specialized operations and when setting strategic priorities. This book critically addresses the proliferation of intelligence logics within policing from a wide array of scholarly perspectives. It considers questions such as: How are precautionary logics becoming increasingly central in the dominant policing strategies? What kind of challenges will this move entail? What does the criminalization of preparatory acts mean for previous distinctions between crime prevention and crime detection? What are the predominant rationales behind the proactive use of covert cohesive measures in order to prevent attacks on national security? How are new technological measures, increased private partnerships and international cooperation challenging the core nature of police services as the main providers of public safety and security? This book offers new insights by exploring dilemmas, legal issues and questions raised by the use of new policing methods and the blurred and confrontational lines that can be observed between prevention, intelligence and investigation in police work.

Originally published in 1975, this volume (3 of 4) presents an expanded model of certain deductive abilities in children and adults. A partial explanation of the growth of these abilities was suggested in Volume 2 of this series, and it is amplified here, both with regard to propositional logic and the logic of class inclusion. A new methodology is employed, the issue of the effect of content in deductive reasoning is covered, and developmental questions are reformulated. Although only data from experiments with adolescents are presented here, the volume sets the stage for potentially illustrating developmental comparisons, a topic pursued in Volume 4 of this novel and inventive series.