This book provides a critical overview of significant developments in research and theory on counterfactual thinking that have emerged in recent years and spotlights exciting new directions for future research in this area. Key issues considered include the relations between counterfactual and casual reasoning, the functional bases of counterfactual thinking, the role of counterfactual thinking in the experience of emotion and the importance of counterfactual thinking in the context of crime and justice.

This book provides a comprehensive state-of-the-art review of personality and intelligence, as well as covering other variables underlying academic and occupational performance. "Personality and Intellectual Competence" is a unique attempt to develop a comprehensive model to understand individual difference by relating major personality dimensions to cognitive ability measures, academic and job performance, and self-assessed abilities, as well as other traditional constructs such as leadership and creativity. It will be essential reading for anyone interested in personality, intelligence, and the prediction of future achievement in general.
"Personality and Intellectual Competence" is an outstanding account of the relationship between major individual differences constructs. With its informative summary of the last century of research in the field, this book provides a robust and systematic theoretical background for understanding the psychological determinants of future achievement. The authors have sought to combine technical expertise with applied interests, making this a groundbreaking theoretical tool for anyone concerned with the scientific prediction of human performance.

The first international handbook to bring the areas of reasoning, judgment and decision making together, now in paperback format. The book brings three of the important topics of thinking together - reasoning, judgment and decision making aACAACA" and discusses key issues in each area. The studies described range from those that are purely laboratory based to those that involve experts making real world judgments, in areas such as medical and legal decision making and political and economic forecasting.* International collection of original chapters by leading researchers in the field* Several chapters contain important new theoretical perspectives* Paperback version is more affordable for individual researchers

Originally published in 1976, this title is an edited volume and reflects the major approaches being taken in structural learning at the time. Chapter 1 deals with the basic question of whether competence (knowledge) should be characterized in terms of rules (automata), on the one hand, or associations on the other. The bulk of Chapter 2 is devoted to a series of earlier experiments on rule learning by the editor and his associates. The two contributions in Chapter 3 deal with graph theoretical models. Piagetian models constitute the subject of Chapter 4. Chapter 5 deals with attempts to stimulate human behaviour with a computer. Chapter 6 ranges over a wide variety of competence models, with particular reference to logic and mathematics. In Chapter 7 the editor proposes a new theory of structural learning, together with some empirical results.

New information obtained from the declassification of Ultra intercepts and other Second World War documents as well as from recent scholarly research has credited Allied deception operations with an even more important contribution to winning the war than was previously supposed. Yet deception is only one factor in the achievement of victory; it cannot guarantee success. It must be fully understood and exploited by the highest levels of command. Most histories of deception operations during the Second World War have focused on those that were successful. Instances in which deception operations failed to achieve their objectives are discussed by John Campbell, who describes an early attempt to convince the Germans that the Allies intended to invade at Pas de Calais in the summer of 1943, and by Katherine Herbig, who gives the first detailed description of US deception operations in the Pacific. Klaus-Jurgen Muller questions the actual effectiveness of deception operations against the Germans. He argues that many successes attributed to the Allies' use of deception were in fact achieved by independent considerations on the German side. Professor Muller builds a particularly strong case in challenging the success of Operation Fortitude North, in which the Allies tried to divert German troops to Norway before invading Normandy. Although very little is known of Soviet deception operations on the Eastern Front, it must be remembered that they were conducted on a much larger scale than those of either the British in Europe or the Americans in the Pacific. Colonel David Glantz's account of Soviet deception and covert activities offers a version of the historiography of the war between the USSRand Germany which may explain some of the monumental German failures. Tom Cubbage not only contributes a synthesis of the primary and secondary sources available on the deception operations preceding Overlord, but also reviews the so-called Hesketh Report - Fortitude: A History of Strategic Deception in North Western Europe April 1943 to May 1945, Colonel Roger Hesketh's official report on Allied deception operations against the Germans in north-west Europe which was declassified in 1976, yet remains unpublished. It indicates that Professor Muller's suspicions that the Allies over-estimated the impact of Fortitude are unfounded. Edited and with a comprehensive introduction by Michael Handel, these important and original studies put the entire deception effort during the Second World War into a more balanced and accurate perspective.

Lack of ability to think probabilistically makes one prone to a variety of irrational fears and vulnerable to scams designed to exploit probabilistic naivete, impairs decision making under uncertainty, facilitates the misinterpretation of statistical information, and precludes critical evaluation of likelihood claims. Cognition and Chance presents an overview of the information needed to avoid such pitfalls and to assess and respond to probabilistic situations in a rational way. Dr. Nickerson investigates such questions as how good individuals are at thinking probabilistically and how consistent their reasoning under uncertainty is with principles of mathematical statistics and probability theory. He reviews evidence that has been produced in researchers' attempts to investigate these and similar types of questions. Seven conceptual chapters address such topics as probability, chance, randomness, coincidences, inverse probability, paradoxes, dilemmas, and statistics. The remaining five chapters focus on empirical studies of individuals' abilities and limitations as probabilistic thinkers. Topics include estimation and prediction, perception of covariation, choice under uncertainty, and people as intuitive probabilists. Cognition and Chance is intended to appeal to researchers and students in the areas of probability, statistics, psychology, business, economics, decision theory, and social dilemmas.

Originally published in 1975, this volume (3 of 4) presents an expanded model of certain deductive abilities in children and adults. A partial explanation of the growth of these abilities was suggested in Volume 2 of this series, and it is amplified here, both with regard to propositional logic and the logic of class inclusion. A new methodology is employed, the issue of the effect of content in deductive reasoning is covered, and developmental questions are reformulated. Although only data from experiments with adolescents are presented here, the volume sets the stage for potentially illustrating developmental comparisons, a topic pursued in Volume 4 of this novel and inventive series.

A Handbook of Process Tracing Methods demonstrates how to better understand decision outcomes by studying decision processes, through the introduction of a number of exciting techniques. Decades of research have identified numerous idiosyncrasies in human decision behavior, but some of the most recent advances in the scientific study of decision making involve the development of sophisticated methods for understanding decision process-known as process tracing. In this volume, leading experts discuss the application of these methods and focus on the best practices for using some of the more popular techniques, discussing how to incorporate them into formal decision models. This edition has been expanded and thoroughly updated throughout, and now includes new chapters on mouse tracking, protocol analysis, neurocognitive methods, the measurement of valuation, as well as an overview of important software packages. The volume not only surveys cutting-edge research to illustrate the great variety in process tracing techniques, but also serves as a tutorial for how the novice researcher might implement these methods. A Handbook of Process Tracing Methods will be an essential read for all students and researchers of decision making.

Originally published in 1985, the chapters in this volume collectively approach the phenomenon of questioning from many perspectives. There are studies on question comprehension, question answering, question asking and the influence of adjunct questions on text comprehension and memory. The chapters cover different theories, models, methods, and practical applications. Some contributors focus exclusively on adult subjects, whereas other examine cognitive development in children. The earlier chapters in the book have a "pure science" emphasis, whereas the later chapters have an "applied" emphasis. Of course, the distinction between science and application had, in the editors' words, become "very fuzzy" in the years prior to publication.

The last two years have witnessed deterioration in the global security situation characterised by increasing tensions among major powers. The threat perceptions of the US, China and Russia vis-is each other have sharpened. There is stiff competition among them to dominate the strategic space in different parts of the world. This has led them to fo

Since the mid-80s several laboratories around the world have been developing techniques for the operational use of tests derived from item-generation. According to the experts, the major thrust of test development in the next decade will be the harnessing of item generation technology to the production of computer developed tests. This is expected to revolutionize the way in which tests are constructed and delivered.
This book is a compilation of the papers presented at a symposium held at ETS in Princeton, attended by the world's foremost experts in item-generation theory and practice. Its goal is to present the major applications of cognitive principles in the construction of ability, aptitude, and achievement tests. It is an intellectual contribution to test development that is unique, with great potential for changing the ways tests are generated. The intended market includes professional educators and psychologists interested in test generation.

In recent years, reported racial disparities in IQ scores have been the subject of raging debates in the behavioral and social sciences and education. What can be made of these test results in the context of current scientific knowledge about human evolution and cognition? Unfortunately, discussion of these issues has tended to generate more heat than light.
Now, the distinguished authors of this book offer powerful new illumination. Representing a range of disciplines--psychology, anthropology, biology, economics, history, philosophy, sociology, and statistics--the authors review the concept of race and then the concept of intelligence. Presenting a wide range of findings, they put the experience of the United States--so frequently the only focus of attention--in global perspective. They also show that the human species has no races in the biological sense (though cultures have a variety of folk concepts of race), that there is no single form of intelligence, and that formal education helps individuals to develop a variety of cognitive abilities. "Race and Intelligence" offers the most comprehensive and definitive response thus far to claims of innate differences in intelligence among races.

This volume brings together leading researchers in a major new effort to bridge the historical gap between the domains of ability and personality. The result is a remarkable collection of chapters analyzing critical issues at the interface--style, structure, process, and context. Contributors address:
* intelligence and its relation to temperament and character-hierarchical models of cognition and personality; judgmental data in personality research; and structural issues in ability and personality;
* intelligence and conation-goal theories; the role of conation in the learning environment; motivation and arousal;
* intelligence and style-stylistic preferences; the role of disposition; cognitive style and its measurement; test taking style; and
* intelligence and personality in context-regularities of functioning; contextual effects in cultural variation; control and consistency; the concept of "successful intelligence."

Human reasoning is marked by an ability to remember one's personal past and to imagine one's future. Together these capacities rely on the notion of a temporally extended self or the self in time. Recent evidence suggests that it is during the preschool period that children first construct this form of self. By about four years of age, children can remember events from their pasts and reconstruct a personal narrative integrating these events. They know that past events in which they participated affect present circumstances. They can also imagine the future and make decisions designed to bring about desirable future events even in the face of competing immediate gratification. This book brings together the leading researchers on these issues and for the first time in literature, illustrates how a unified approach based on the idea of a temporally extended self can integrate these topics.

Originally published in 1976, this fourth and final volume in a series that met with critical acclaim is concerned with a certain kind of answer to the question "What distinguishes the concepts that are a natural part of human languages from those that are merely expressible in language?" The kind of answers contemplated rely on formal properties of the logics that overlay the two sorts of concepts. The author presents a substantive theory of natural concepts which helps to make concrete the methodological proposals. In order to make the theory more manageable, it is restricted to sentential modifiers expressed in English. Although these proposals are substantive, the methodology they exemplify may be of even more significance. Some of the ideas in the author's approach derive from the work of Chomsky, and several issues relevant to the growth of logical thinking are also treated with data that speak to questions raised in Volume 3, concerning qualitative change through development. This final volume in the series will be essential reading for all concerned with both logical abilities in children, their development, and novel methodological approaches to research bearing on this and related issues.

In this concise and lucid survey, originally published in 1972, the author considers the major theoretical perspectives influential in the psychology of thinking at the time. They are looked at in relation to the problems which they are designed to answer and their success in accounting for the experimental evidence.

Martinez defines intelligence from a cognitive perspective as a repertoire of those skills, strategies, and knowledge structures that are most instrumental in human effectiveness. He posits that in today's complex, fast-paced, technologically dense, and information-rich society, intelligence is the supreme human resource. The current social context not only demands intelligence, but rewards it economically, psychically, and in other ways. His central argument in this book is this: The intellectual abilities that are crucial to modern life, including economic viability and effectiveness in daily living, correspond to the cognitive functions that are reasonably called "intelligence"; these intellectual abilities are learnable; we now know enough about the structure and mechanisms of intelligent thought and behavior to teach them directly. Martinez explicates his argument and provides research-based evidence to support his claim.

The concept and measurement of intelligence present a curious paradox. On the one hand, scientists, fluent in the complex statistics of intelligence-testing theories, devote their lives to exploration of cognitive abilities. On the other hand, the media, and inexpert, cross-disciplinary scientists decry the effort as socially divisive and useless in practice. In the past decade, our understanding of testing has radically changed. Better selected samples have extended evidence on the role of heredity and environment in intelligence. There is new evidence on biology and behavior. Advances in molecular genetics have enabled us to discover DMA markers which can identify and isolate a gene for simple genetic traits, paving the way for the study of multiple gene traits, such as intelligence.

Hans Eysenck believes these recent developments approximate a general paradigm which could form the

basis for future research. He explores the many special abilities--verbal, numerical, visuo-spatial memory--that contribute to our cognitive behavior. He examines pathbreaking work on "multiple" intelligence, and the notion of "social" or "practical" intelligence and considers whether these new ideas have any scientific meaning. Eysenck also includes a study of creativity and intuition--as well as the production of works of art and science--identifying special factors that interact with general intelligence to produce predictable effects in the actual world.

The work that Hans Eysenck has put together over the last fifty years in research into individual differences constitutes most of what anyone means by the structure and biological basis of personality and intelligence. A giant in the field of psychology, Eysenck almost single-handedly restructured and reordered his profession. Intelligence is Eysenck's final book and the third in a series of his works from Transaction.

The fundamental premise of "Thinkback"--based on overwhelming scientific evidence--is that intelligence is not fixed at birth and that, with consistent effort, we can dramatically improve our capacities. It counters the claims of some psychologists that it is impossible to increase intelligence because that ability is determined at birth.
"Thinkback" builds on the Think Aloud strategies in Arthur Whimbey and Jack Lochhead's popular and widely used volume, "Problem Solving & Comprehension," now in its sixth edition. Since its publication, thousands of students have used these techniques for improving thinking and analytic reasoning to increase test scores, win National Merit
Scholarships, and gain admission to top-ranked professional schools. Now, "Thinkback" shows how these powerful strategies can be applied to a range of important academic areas including mathematics, language arts, social studies, and science.
Thinkback is a tool for student empowerment--a strategy they can use to improve both their ability to think and their ability to learn. The Thinkback classroom, on the other hand, is a design for teacher liberation--enabling them to see learning more clearly than they ever could before.
This is the only book currently available that contains detailed models of metacognitive dialogues in the classroom. These dialogues enable teachers and teacher educators to observe thinking processes that have previously been invisible and undetectable. Based on over 20 years of careful cognitive research, the dialogues provide teachers with important insights into the nature of thinking and problem solving. Thinkback is a picture window on the working mind.
This book:
*Describes the Thinkback strategy for making thinking strategies explicit, easy to teach, and easy to learn.
*Includes numerous detailed examples that demonstrate the Thinkback technique. Six quite different learning strategies--derived from the work of David Perkins, Barry Beyer, Arthur Whimbey, Joseph Novak, John R. Hayes, and Lev Landa--are presented to illustrate the range of contexts in which Thinkback can be used.
*Spans the wide gap between unstructured constructivist-style instruction and lock-step memorization drills. The Thinkback technique can convert a teacher-centered rote memory lesson into an intellectually challenging student-centered exploration, while at the same time maintaining specific content mastery objectives. Or it can be used to add subtle structure to an open-ended creative exercise, allowing students of all levels to benefit and insuring that no one is left floundering.

"Thinkback" is an important new resource for teachers and students in high schools, community colleges, and introductory college programs; industrial trainers; home schoolers; parents; and anyone else who would like to see learners become more intelligent and are willing to work to see that they do.

Series Information:
International Library of Psychology

Contents:
Preface and Acknowledgements. Rationality in Reasoning. Personal Goals, Utility, and Probability. Relevance, Rationality, and Tacit Processing. Reasoning as Decision Making: The Case of the Selection Task. Prior Belief. Deductive Competence. A Dual Process Theory of Thinking.

Series Information:
International Library of Psychology

Routledge is now re-issuing this prestigious series of 204 volumes originally published between 1910 and 1965. The titles include works by key figures such asC.G. Jung, Sigmund Freud, Jean Piaget, Otto Rank, James Hillman, Erich Fromm, Karen Horney and Susan Isaacs. Each volume is available on its own, as part of a themed mini-set, or as part of a specially-priced 204-volume set. A brochure listing each title in the "International Library of Psychology" series is available upon request.

Intelligence played a crucial part in the genesis, management and resolution of the Cuban missile crisis in 1962, the world's closest brush with nuclear war. This study examines the role and performance of all three intelligence communities centrally involved in this event: American, Soviet and Cuban.

Intelligence and the Cuban Missile Crisis examines for the first time the role and performance of all three intelligence communities centrally involved in this seminal event: American, Soviet and Cuban. The ways in which organizational and personality variables affect the political exploitation of intelligence is assessed followed by an analysis of the psychology of intelligence assessment, showing how common cognitive and motivational pathologies can explain crucial errors of inference and attribution made by all three intelligence communities. In closing, the lessons of the volume as a whole are reflected upon for the theory and practice of intelligence assessment, and for our understanding of the Cuban Missile Crisis.