Difficult to measure accurately and deal with effectively, organic pollutants continue to be a major hazard in the environment. Significantly expanded, the second edition of Organic Pollutants: An Ecotoxicological Perspective describes the mechanistic basis of ecotoxicology, using major groups of pollutants as illustrative examples, and explores the problem of complex mixtures of chemicals. New in the Second Edition: Expanded coverage of complex pollution problems and the exploitation of recent scientific and technological developments to investigate them New chapters: Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and their Environmental Impacts and Neurotoxicity and Behavioral Effects Additional information on biomarker approaches and new technologies, such as microarrays assays, developed to address complex pollution problems Tried-and-True Format Presents Updated Information Keeping the same format that made the first edition so popular, the text begins with coverage of the basic principles underpinning the environmental behavior and effects of organic pollutants. It then describes the properties and ecotoxicology of major pollutants, discusses some issues that arise after consideration of the material in the second part of the text, and explores future prospects. Mechanistic Approach Provides Basis for Development of New Strategies The book takes a bottom up approach, describing the mechanisms by which pollutants have harmful effects on living organisms and how these effects are translated into adverse changes at the population level. This mechanistic approach supplies the basis for development of new mechanistic biomarker assays, which in turn provide measures of toxic effect and not merely of exposure, and subsequently provide evidence of causality between pollutant levels and ecological changes.

While an ever-present and familiar toxin, carbon monoxide (CO) remains the number one poison in our environment. This silent killer is responsible for over 2,000 deaths a year in the United States alone. The public and healthcare communities need quality information about the many risks presented by carbon monoxide exposure. Edited by a leading expert in the field, Carbon Monoxide Poisoning delineates the successful means to prevent, identify, and manage the effects of CO poisoning.

This volume explores new information on CO toxicity, including rehabilitation, the dissemination of information to the public, litigation involving CO poisoning, economic loss assessment, and firefighting. A series of chapters detail the risk of CO poisoning from kitchen ranges, recreational vehicles, and power boats. Expert contributors survey diagnostic procedures and devices, incorporating advances in brain SPECT imaging and non-invasive pulse-oximetry. The book includes chapters that specifically addressthe pros and cons of hyperbaric oxygen therapy and thoroughly review the physiological effects of acute and long term exposure to CO, as well as the neurocognitive and neurobehavioral sequelae.

Whether you are a healthcare professional who treats CO poisoning, a lawyer involved in litigation for loss of life or property due to CO poisoning, or an engineer developing a well-insulated structure with sufficient ventilation; you will face the challenges raised by CO toxicology. Offering the only comprehensive reference on the subject, this multi-faceted guide takes an innovative look at how we can identify, treat, and prevent harmful exposure to carbon monoxide.

This title is an excellent resource to help indentify poisonous plants in the home and garden and contains the most current information about plant toxicity in dogs and cats. This essential reference allows veterinarians to not only identify poisonous plants, but also includes the toxic properties of the plant and the clinical signs that can be expected in animals that ingest the plants. This instrumental guide contains detailed discussions on the plant toxins, the plant parts that are most dangerous and the first aid that should be considered. The title includes 192 domestic and exotic plant species, with an emphasis on plants typically found in and around the home. This user friendly guide is organized alphabetically by the plant's botanical name, while the index includes common names listed to help find the specific plant in question. The 350 high quality color photos also assist the practitioner in accurate plant identification. The highly visual, easily accessible format make this title an ideal toxically reference for small animal practitioners.

Exposure to particles in industry and mining and from accidental anthropogenic sources constitutes an ongoing threat. Most recently nanoparticles arising from advances in technology are exposing a wider population to pathogenic stimuli. The effects of inhaled particles are no longer confined to the lung as nanoparticles have the potential to translocate to the bloodstream, the brain, and other target sites. The new questions posed by nanoparticles underscore the importance of interdisciplinary research and exchange and highlight the need for new collaborations among disciplines in medicine, toxicology, chemistry, and material sciences. Particle Toxicology brings together the state of the science in particle physico-chemistry, cell biology, and toxicology in a single volume. While organized around the classical toxicology paradigm of exposure - dose - response, the book is unique in its emphasis on mechanistic toxicology. Preparing the reader with a brief historical overview and a conceptual framework for particle research, the book provides reviews on the mechanisms and properties of pathogenic particles and their effects on target cells at various sites in the body. The text describes how adverse effects are a consequence of deposition, translocation, and the complex issue of "dose" dominates. Contributions from leading researchers address particle-associated pro-inflammatory effects and inflammatory signaling, cellular and extracellular oxidative and nitrosative stress, particulate interactions in the pulmonary, cardiovascular, and central nervous systems, as well as genotoxic effects. Exemplar particles include quartz, asbestos, particulate material and nanoparticles. The book also covers mathematical modeling and human studies as avenues for future research. Responding to the evolving trend of consumer applications for particulate matter, Particle Toxicology provides the comprehensive resource for current knowledge from which to develop ne

Thermoregulation is vital for survival but the interplay between toxic insults and thermoregulatory mechanisms is often poorly understood. Temperature and Toxicology: An Integrative, Comparative, and Environmental Approach is the first major text to study the integrative thermoregulatory responses of mammals that are exposed to toxicants. Because environmental physiology is also crucial in toxicological responses, this volume also examines the role of environmental temperature in the modulation of cellular mechanisms of toxicity.The book begins by explaining the importance of temperature in toxicological studies, and how all biological processes are dependent on temperature. It then reviews the basics of temperature regulation in homeotherms and poikilotherms, and addresses whole-animal and in vitro studies related to the effects of temperature on toxicity. The text examines thermoregulatory response to toxic insult, and how responses affect recovery and potential survival. reactions in humans, and discusses the relevance of heat and cold stress on human exposures to airborne pollutants and other toxicants. This volume provides an extensive comparison of physiological responses of invertebrates, fish, amphibians, and mammals, and focuses on the impact of endocrine disruption. It then considers how toxicants and thermal stress cause the expression of stress proteins, followed by a study of the impact of genetic variability. The book concludes with an examination of thermoregulatory response to natural toxins and venoms.FeaturesExplores how human health and susceptibility to toxicants can be strongly linked to environmental temperatureProvides more than 100 figures and 500 references that illustrate mechanisms though which toxicants affect various speciesInvestigates integrative thermoregulatory responses to toxicants, including effects on behavior and motor outputs

Whether considering toxicant exposure in zebrafish, or the application of cellular diagnostics to marine toxicology, or the ecotoxicology of coral reef ecosystems, or the amount of metalloids in water, this reference offers the protocols for specimen collection that researchers need. Following up on his popular Techniques in Aquatic Toxicology with a second volume, now nine years later, Dr. Ostrander has once again called on the top aquatic toxicologists from across the world to present 39 chapters of unique collection and testing procedures. Updating five techniques from the first volume, the authors have gone on to add over two dozen new techniques. Like the first volume, this text divides the chapters into four broad areas: Techniques for the Assessment of Toxicity in Whole Organisms, Cellular and Subcellular Toxicity, Contaminant Identification, and Impacts in Aquatic Ecosystems, and ends with a General Techniques section that anyone working in the field should find useful. Every chapter covers a specific procedure that can easily be reproduced by any competent technician with basic knowledge. Each of the chapter authors provides and interprets typical as well as anomalous results, false positives, and artifacts. Data is provided either from recently published experiments or from work being published for the first time.

Contents:
1. Introduction to Occupational Toxicology N.H. Stacey 2. Basics of Toxicology N.H. Stacey 3. Systemic Toxicology N.H. Stacey, W.M. Hasschek and C. Winder 4. Respiratory Toxicology G. Baker 5. Occupational Skin Disease, E.A. Emmett 6. Reproduction, Development and Occupational Health, C. Winder 7. Genetic Toxicology A. Mitchell 8. Carcinogenesis and its Prevention H. Vainio 9. Toxicity of Metals C. Winder 10. Toxicity of Pesticides A. Moretto and M. Lotti 11. Toxicity of Solvents N.H. Stacey 12. Toxicity of Plastics R. Drew 13. Toxicology of Inhaled Material C. Winder and P. Turner 14. Occupational Hygiene - Interface with Toxicology C. Gray 15. Occupational Medicine - Interface with Toxicology W.O. Phoon 16. Occupational Epidemiology - Interface with Toxicology M.S. Frommer and S.J. Corbett 17. Managing Workplace Chemical Safety C. Winder and C. Vickers 18. Working Examples in Occupational Toxicology N.H. Stacey and C. Winder 19. Chemicals, Workplaces and the Law C. Winder and J. Barter

Why are some individuals more sensitive to the effects of caffeine than others? Why is the developing infant so much more susceptible to the dangers of lead or mercury? How is the science of toxicology touching our lives every day? Everyday we come into contact with countless substances that could, at certain concentrations, be toxic. This applies not only to obvious candidates such as asbestos, lead and sulphur dioxide, but also compounds such as caffeine and headache tablets.
A Small Dose of Toxicology sets out to answer these questions by setting toxicology in a human context - exploring current toxicology concerns without assuming a prior background in science. Ideal for students requiring a basic foundation in toxicology or public/environmental health, or for those on professional short courses who need a primer to the subject, this engaging and wider-ranging text illustrates important toxicological principles using examples that readers can readily identify with.

The coastal tropics comprise some of the most sensitive and yet the most understudied ecosystems in the world. Coastal plains and river valleys are also home to agriculture on a vast scale and it is not surprising to find that streams and rivers receive the majority of agricultural runoff, carrying the residues of insecticides, fungicides and other pesticides into estuaries and coastal zone. There is a growing awareness of an urgent need to develop strategies that facilitate the coexistence of productive, healthy and economically viable agriculture with the preservation of natural resources.
Pesticide Residues in Tropical Coastal Ecosystems brings together toxicology experts from around the world to assess pesticide burdens in many of the major food-producing tropical countries. It provides a unique set of case studies, chronicling pesticide usage and its ecotoxicological impact in coastal regions.
A practical guide to recent research findings and applications, it is essential reading for environmental professionals, ecotoxicologists, marine chemists and agrochemists.

eBook available with sample pages: 0203165586

Dioxin - Environmental Fate and Health/Ecological Consequences offers a unique, and comprehensive coverage of dioxins and their congeners once they are released to the environment. The book provides readers with a systematic understanding of past and emerging sources of dioxins, current dioxins inventories and historical trends, fate and long-range transboundary atmospheric transport, human health, and ecological risk and regulatory perspective. Providing an excellent analysis of dioxin exposure through the food chain and impact on human health, it also documents the environmental implications of dioxins on ecological flora and fauna. The book offers readers a holistic understanding about dioxins, their atmospheric fate and transport, distribution in various environmental matrices and various routes and exposure pathways through which human beings are exposed to this persistent organic pollutant. It further offers an insight into the toxicological profile and mechanistic analysis of the onset of cancer, remediation technologies, and existing regulatory framework to deal with the problems associated with dioxins. The book will serve as an excellent resource to environmental professionals, particularly environmental toxicologists, environmental health professionals, remediation engineers, environmental regulatory agencies, policymakers, and environmental law professionals.

This reference comprehensively covers the formation, characteristics, and control of various toxins that occur in the production, storage, handling, and preparation of food-exploring toxin sources, mechanisms, routes of exposure and absorption, and their chemical and biochemical components to prevent contamination of food products and reduce epidemics of foodborne disease. Contains more than 3000 current references to facilitate further research, as well as recent guidelines from the FDA and World Health Organization regarding food hygiene and safety The Handbook of Food Toxicology discusses methods to inhibit toxin formation the effect of manufacturing, pesticide, and drug residues on the tissues, organs, and biological processes of the human body the origins, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases caused by food-related microorganisms, viruses, and bacteria biological and industrial contaminants in the air, water, and soil possible environmental factors contributing to cancer, gene mutations, and birth defects potential toxic effects of normal dietary constituents the role of metabolic pathways in xenobiotic toxicity toxicants derived from food processing operations naturally occurring antinutritional components of plants and fungi the impact of additives on food texture, stability, and nutritional value From health and economic consequences to exposure assessment and detoxification, the Handbook of Food Toxicology is an authoritative and timely guide for food toxicologists and mycotoxicologists, nutritionists, food and environmental microbiologists, molecular and cell biologists and biochemists, infectious disease specialists, gastroenterologists, emergency room/poison control physicians, agricultural scientists, phytotoxicologists, food scientists and technologists, food sanitarians, parasitiologists, entomologists, epidemiologists, state and federal regulatory officials, and public health officers.

Monkeys and apes have been used successfully in medical research for many decades due to the high degree of relatedness and biological similarity of these primates to humans. Medical Primatology begins with a discussion of the history of this research, and then focuses on the biological foundations upon which medical primatology has been built. Primate taxonomy and evolution are reviewed using not only traditional sources of data, but also recent experimental evidence from molecular biology, genetics and biomedicine that indicates, in particular, the need to place higher simians in the family of man.
Medical Primatology for the first time provides a comprehensive summary text linking the use of simians in biomedical research to their kinship with humans, and it condenses a wide range of scientific literature into one volume. It will be a useful reference book for those involved in biological, anthropological, biomedical, clinical and pharmacological research on primates, and students and specialists in the biological sciences and medicine.

eBook available with sample pages: 0203298691

Agriculture methods that exclude pesticides and other chemical inputs are spreading rapidly all over the world. Commonly known as organic farming, this agriculture model is increasingly recognized by farmers, consumers, environmentalists and policy-makers as a way to improve environmental, social, and economical sustainability in food production. This entry explains the concept of Organic Farming and gives an overview of the current situation, growth factors and dynamics, and basic practices. Dekker will provide subscribers and readers with new content each quarter. The list below indicates titles planned for future quarterly updates (new and revised articles). The alphabetical list below is not intended to specify when an individual article will be available. This timely resource ranges across a broad spectrum of interrelated disciplines-including botany, zoology, agriculture, engineering, environment, public health, and soil and water science-to identify diverse pest species that damage and destroy crops, livestock, and forest products. This user-friendly reference contains: an authoritative and comprehensive writing style that allows experienced professionals to find specific information overviews that enable quick understanding of never before encountered subject matter a flexible cross referencing system and exhaustive index that facilitate easy location

Contaminants and Clean Technologies provides valuable information on environmental contaminants such as industrial pollutants, micropollutants, pesticides, endocrine disruptors, pharmaceuticals, toxins, and hormones. It focuses on the various types of environmental contaminants discharged from various sources; their toxicological effects in environments, humans, animals, and plants; and their removal methods. It also covers, comprehensively, information on the contaminants released by various industries and agricultural practices, which cause severe threats to the environment. Features of the book: Elucidates systematic information on various types of environmental contaminants, and their fate and consequences Discusses contaminants such as endocrine disruptors, pharmaceutical waste, and personal care products Provides an overview of physicochemical and biological treatment technologies for sustainable development Details recent research finding in the area of environmental contaminants and their future challenges

Contents:
1. Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Study for Defining the Mechanism of Irritant Dermatitis Y. Kawasaki, J. Mizushima, R. Cooke and H. Maibach 2. Irritant Patch Testing in Atopic Individuals H. Loeffler and I. Effendy 3. Quantification of Nonerythematous Irritant Dermatitis V. Charbonnier, H. Maibach, B. Morrison and M. Paye 4. Detergents I. Effendy and H. Maibach 5. Permeability of Skin for Metal Compounds J. Hostynek 6. Irritant Dermatitis: Subthreshhold Irritation E. Tur 7. Cytokines and Irritant Dermatitis Syndrome I. Effendy and H. Maibach 8. Assay to Quantify Subjective Irritation Caused by the Pyrethroid Insecticide Alpha-Cypermethrin R. Herbst, R. Strimling and H. Maibach 9. Prediction of Skin Corrosivity Using Quantitative Structure-activity Relationships M. Barratt 10. Contamination and Percutaneous Absorption of Chemicals from Water and Soil R. Wester and H. Maibach 11. Determining an Occupational Dermal Exposure Biomarker for Atrazine Through Measurement of Metabolites in Human Urine by HPLC-accelerator Mass-spectrometry B. Buchholz, J. Vogel, S. Gilman, S. Gee, B. Hammock, X. Hui, R. Wester and H. Maibach 12. Partitioning of Chemicals from Water Into Powdered Human Stratum Corneum (Callus) X. Hui, R. Wester, P. Magee and H. Maibach 13. Dermal Exposure of Hands to Pesticides G. Matthews 14. Iontophoresis A. Anigbogu and H. Maibach 15. Penetration and Barrier Creams H. Zhai and H. Maibach 16. Fiber K. Hatch and H. Maibach 17. Novel Topical Agents for Prevention and Treatment of Allergic and Irritant Contact Dermatitis John Wille and A. Kydonieus 18. Allergic Contact Dermatitis: Clinical Considerations Y. Leow and H. Maibach 19. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Immunology of Experimental Contact Sensitizers W. Hannon, T. Chartier and J. Taylor 20. Modulation of the Dermal Immune Response by Acute Restraint S. Tinkle and M. Flint 21. Textile-dye Allergic Contact Dermatitis Prevalence K. Hatch and H. Maibach 22. Dose-Response Studies in Guinea Pig Allergy Tests S. Frankild 23. Operational Definition of Allergic Contact Dermatitis S. Ale and H. Maibach 24. Predictive Immunotoxicological Risk Assessment B. Horney, P. Lehmann and H. Vohr 25. Allergic Contact Dermatitis From Transdermal Systems C. Levin and H. Maibach 26. Animal Models for Immunologic Contact Urticaria and Nonimmunologic Contact Urticaria A. Lauerma and H. Maibach 27. Diagnostic Tests in Dermatology S. Amin, A. Lauerma and H. Maibach 28. Wound Healing Products D. Hobson 29. Issues of Toxicity With Dermatologic Drugs During Pregnancy B. Reed 30. Roles of Calcium Ions in Skin Barrier H. Tanojo and H. Maibach 31. Nuclear Receptors for Psoralen in Cultured Human Skin Fibroblasts K. Milioni, E. Bloom and H. Maibach 32. In Vitro Viability Assays M. Kwah 33. Dermal Penetration of Calcium Salts and Calcinosis Cutis S. Soileau

Toxicology has made tremendous strides in the sophistication of the models used to identify and understand the mechanisms of agents that can harm or kill humans and other higher organisms. Non-animals or in vitro models started to gain significant use in the 1960s. As a result of the increased concern over animal welfare, economic factors, and the need for greater sensitivity and understanding of mechanisms, interest in in vitro models has risen. This volume demonstrates that there now exists a broad range of in vitro models for use in either identifying or understanding most forms of toxicity. The availability of in vitro models spans both the full range of endpoints (irritation, sensitization, lethality, mutagenicity, and developmental toxicity) and the full spectrum of target organ systems (including the skin, eye, heart, liver, kidney and nervous system). Chapters are devoted to each of these speciality areas from a perspective of presenting the principal models and their uses and limitations.

The environment in which human beings live is complex and we may encounter many different potentially toxic chemical substances during the course of our lives. These xenobiotic agents may invade the living system in the form of environmental pollutants, in the diet, as pharmaceutically administered compounds or even as chemical weapons and it is becoming widely recognised that free radicals are often involved in this toxicity.
The book covers all aspects of toxic agents in the environment from their detection to their effects. Final year undergraduates and postgraduates studying toxicology, biochemistry, cell biology or environmental science will find this book valuable reading, whilst researchers in academia, the pharmaceutical industry, and public health laboratories will appreciate it as a comprehensive reference.

Marine Neurotoxins, Volume Five provides comprehensive information on marine toxins present in the human food chain and the affecting targets relevant for the functioning of the brain and our nervous system, covering all the information available on their action on the physiology of neurons and glial cells, both "in vivo" or "in vitro." New sections in this release include Guanidinium Toxins: Evolution, Mode of Action and Chemical Ecology, Amnesic: Domoic Acid, Neurotoxic: Ciguatoxin and Brevetoxin, Neurotoxic: Cyclic Imines, Potentially Neurotoxic: Okadaic acid and analogues, Potentially Neurotoxic: Palytoxin, and Methods for assessing the presence of marine neurotoxins.

Pharmaceuticals in Marine and Coastal Environments: Occurrence, Effects, and Challenges in a Changing World is divided into three sections that address a) coastal areas as the main entrance of pharmaceuticals into the ocean, b) the occurrence and distribution of pharmaceuticals in the environmental compartments of the ocean media, and c) the effects that such pollutants may cause to the exposed marine organisms. With its comprehensive discussions, the book provides a wide depiction of the current state-of-the-art on these topics in an effort to open new sources of investigation and find suitable solutions.

The field of nanomedicine has risen quickly due to the increasing number of designer-made nanomaterials. These nanomaterials have the potential to manage diseases and change the way medicine is currently studied. However, the increased practice of using nanomaterials has shed light on how many concepts of nanomedicine and nanotoxicity have been overlooked. Nanotoxicology: Toxicity Evaluation of Nanomedicine Applications addresses the existing gaps between nanomedicine and nanotoxicity. This book also brings together up-to-date knowledge on advances toward safe-by-design nanomaterials and existing toxicity challenges. This book delivers a comprehensive coverage in the field with fundamental understanding, serving as a platform to convey essential concepts of nanotoxicology and how these concepts can be employed to develop advanced nanomaterials for a range of biomedical applications. This book is an effort to answer some of the thoughtful nanotoxicological complications and their auspicious probable solutions with new approaches and careful toxicity assessment. Key Features: Reveals novel nanoscale approaches, toxicity assessment, and biomedical applications Includes importance of nanotoxicity concepts in developing smart nanomaterials Highlights unique contributions and "A to Z" aspects on the state-of-the-art from global leaders Offers a complete package to learn fundamentals with recommendations on nanomaterials toxicity and safe-by-design nanomedicines Nanotoxicology: Toxicity Evaluation of Nanomedicine Applications illuminates the high potential of many innovative nanomaterials, ultimately demonstrating them to be promising substitutes for available therapies that can be effectively used in fighting a myriad of biomedical complications. Further, this book reports legal, ethical, safety, and regulatory issues associated with nanomaterials, which have often been neglected, if not overlooked in literature and limiting clinical translation at nanoscale level. It will equip readers with cutting-edge knowledge of promising developments in nanomedicine and nanotoxicology, along with potential future prospects.

The living soil is crucial to photosynthesis, biogeochemical cycles, global food production, climate change, biodiversity, and plant and animal health. In the past decade, scientists have made significant advances in soil microbiology research. While the basic principles are now better understood, knowledge has been forthcoming on the best available technologies and methods applied to researching soil microorganisms, their diversity, interactions, biochemistry, survival, gene expression, and their roles in global climate change, plant disease suppression and growth stimulation, and biogeochemical cycles. This knowledge can be applied to better predict the transformation of pollutants in soil and the activities of microbes in the rhizosphere. It will also assist us in fostering crop production in an era with an increasing human population and intensification of agriculture. Following the tradition of its predecessors, Modern Soil Microbiology, Third Edition, is an indispensable source that supports graduate/undergraduate teaching for soil and environmental microbiologists in academia, as well as in government and industrial laboratories. It is a comprehensive collection of chapters on various aspects of soil microbiology, useful for all professionals working with soils. Compiled by internationally renowned educators and research scholars, this textbook contains key tables, figures, and photographs, supported by thousands of references to illustrate the depth of knowledge in soil microbiology. FEATURES Fully updated and expanded to include new key chapters on historical developments, future applications, and soil viruses and proteins Discusses molecular methods applied to soil microbiology, diverse soil microorganisms, and global climate change Emphasizes the role of terrestrial microorganisms and cycles involved in climate change Details the latest molecular methods applied to soil microbiology research User-friendly for students, and containing numerous tables, figures, and illustrations to better understand the current knowledge in soil microbiology

Written in such a way as to make it accessible to toxicologists who do not have English as a first language, this book focuses on evaluating, interpreting and reporting results of regulatory toxicology studies.

The volume discusses novel issues associated with the neurotoxicity of select metals

This text focuses on research procedures in toxicology, aiming to illustrate toxicological concepts and types of toxicity from a mechanistic point of view. Mechanistic research in toxicology leads not only to a greater understanding of the biology involved, but also the means to design substances with selectivity between species and minimal undesirable side effects. Examples of chemical intoxicants are used to illustrate mechanisms in each stage of developing toxicity.

Placental Toxicology examines placental transfer and toxicology of drugs and environmental agents to placenta, as well as to fetus. For the first time in a single volume, placental and fetal consequences of exposure of pregnant women to drugs, environmental chemicals, and infections, such as HIV, are discussed. Topics include:
The art of in vitro perfusion of human placenta
Abuse of alcohol, nicotine, morphine, and cocaine during pregnancy, their placental transfer and fetal growth retardation
Placental transfer and fetal toxicities of environmental insecticides
Placental hormones and fetal well-being
Placental transfer of HIV and treatment of pregnant women with anti-HIV drugs