Proceedings of a symposium held in Canterbury, United Kingdom, April 5-8, 1993.

The Fifth International Meeting on Cholinesterases convened in Madras, India, in September of 1994. The long and rich history and culture of India provided an excellent setting for the meeting. More than 120 delegates from Asia, Australia, Europe and North America heard 54 oral presentations and viewed 54 posters on current research on enzymes of the cholinesterase family. The aim of this book is to compile the presentations of the Fifth International Meeting on Cholinesterases into a volume that describes recent investigations on the structure and catalytic function of acetylcholinesterase (AChE), butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) and related enzymes, as well as studies on the molecular and cellular biology of these enzymes and the genes which encode them. Cholinesterases enjoy a long and storied history in diverse areas. In basic biochemical research, AChE is one of the best studied, though yet enigmatic, of enzymes. The efficient catalytic function of this enzyme presents the biochemist with a fundamental challenge in understanding the relationship between structure and function. AChE and BuChE belong to a family of proteins, the alB hydrolase fold family, whose constituents evolutionarily diverged from a common ancestor. Proteins in this family have a wide range of physiological functions. In commerce, AChE is a prime target for agricultural insect control, and for the development of therapeutic agents for Alzheimer's disease.

Vaccination is one of the most efficient and cost effective methods of promoting human health and has been in clinical use for at least 200 years. Nevertheless, infectious diseases continue to constitute a constant threat to the well being of humanity. Common pathogens, once believed to be under control, acquire increased virulence and resistance to drugs, while exotic microorganisms emerged from hidden reservoirs to cause yet incurable diseases in humans. These changes, together with epidemic outbreaks related to political and socio-economic instabilities, increase the needs for the development of new, advanced vaccines. In this volume, devoted to the proceedings of the 39th OHOLO Conference, we present some of the recent strategies for the design and production of novel vaccines. The advent of recombinant DNA technology has stimulated the production of several subunit vaccines. In spite of the obvious advantages to this approach, the limited immuno genicity of many subunit candidates has hindered their development. Strategies to enhance the immunogenicity of subunit vaccines is therefore critical. Several approaches toward this goal, including design of novel adjuvants and delivery systems as well as design of advantageous carriers, are presented here. Among the carriers evaluated here are polypep tides (flagellin, HBV core antigen, J3-galactosidase), attenuated virions (Vaccinia, Sindbis), and nonpathogenic licensed bacteria (Salmonella)."

Over the weekend of 21-23 February 1997, a small group gathered in Tallahassee, Florida, at the invitation of Ted Williams, to discuss "photo stasis and related topics." The majority of participants were former students and colleagues of Ted's, but an occasional outsider such as myself was generously included. The papers presented there are collected in this volume. The theory of photo stasis was first outlined in a landmark paper by John Penn and Ted, published in 1986 in Experimental Eye Research. They provided compelling data showing that, in the albino rat eye, levels of rhodopsin, outer-segment length, rhodopsin regeneration rate, and even, perhaps, rhodopsin packing density all depend on the levels of cyclic illumination (12 hours light, 12 hours dark) in which the animal was reared. So, for example, there is fourfold less rhodopsin in a retinal extract derived from an animal reared at 400 lux than in an extract from the retina of an animal reared at 3 lux. Animals reared at intermediate levels of light show intermediate amounts of rhodopsin that are correlated with illumination level. What these data immediately suggested is that the photoreceptor cell can adjust its photon-catching ability in response to the levels of light in which an animal is reared, and they also provided a compelling rationale for outer-segment turnover, a phenomenon discovered 20 years earlier by Richard Young but whose function has remained obscure.

As forests decline in temperate and tropical climates, highly-developed countries and those striving for greater economic and social benefits are beginning to utilize marginal forests of high-latitude and mountainous regions for resources to satisfy human needs. The benefits of marginal forests range from purely aesthetic to providing resources for producing many goods and services demanded by a growing world population. Increased demands for forest resources and amenities and recent warming of high latitude climates have generated interest in reforestation and afforestation of marginal habitats in cold regions. Afforestation of treeless landscapes improves the environment for human habitation and provides for land use and economic prosperity. Trees are frequently planted in cold climates to rehabilitate denuded sites, for the amenity of homes and villages, and for wind shelter, recreation, agroforestry, and industrial uses. In addition, forests in cold climates reduce the albedo of the earth's surface in winter, and in summer they are small but significant long-lived sinks for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Finally, growth and reproductive success of forests at their geographic limits are sensitive indices of climatic change. As efforts to adapt forests to cold climates increase, however, new afforestation problems arise and old ones intensify. Austral, northern, and altitudinal tree limits are determined by many different factors. Current hypotheses for high-latitude tree limits are based on low growing-season temperatures that inhibit plant development and reproduction.

The last several years have been a landmark period in the ubiquitin field. The breadth of ubiquitin's roles in cell biology was first sketched, and the importance of ubiquitin-dependent proteolysis as a regulatory mechanism gained general acceptance. The many strands of work that led to this new perception are re counted in this book. A consequence of this progress is that the field has grown dramatically since the first book on ubiquitin was published almost a decade ago M. Rechsteiner (ed. ), Ubiquitin, Plenum Press, 1988]. In this span, students of the cell cycle, transcription, signal transduction, protein sorting, neuropathology, cancer, virology, and immunology have attempted to chart the role of ubi quit in in their particular experimental systems, and this integration of the field into cell biology as a whole continues at a remarkable pace. We hope that for active researchers in the field as well as for newcomers and those on the fence, this book will prove helpful for its breadth, historical perspective, and practical tips. Structural data are now available on many of the components of the ubiquitin pathway. The structures have provided basic insights into the unusual biochemical mechanisms of ubiquitination and proteasome-mediated proteolysis. Because high-speed computer graphics can convey structures more effectively than print media, we have supplemented the figures of the book with a Worldwide Web site that can display the structures in a flexible, viewer-controlled format."

Methane and its oxidation product, methanol, have occupied an important position in the chemical industry for many years: the former as a feedstock, the latter as a primary chemical from which many products are produced. More recently, the role played by methane as a potent "greenhouse" gas has aroused considerable attention from environmentalists and clima tologists alike. This role for C compounds has, of course, been quite 1 incidental to the myriad of microorganisms on this planet that have adapted their life-styles to take advantage of these readily available am bient sources. Methane, a renewable energy source that will always be with us, is actually a difficult molecule to activate; so any microorganism that can effect this may point the way to catalytic chemists looking for con trollable methane oxidation. Methanol, formed as a breakdown product of plant material, is also ubiquitous and has also encouraged the growth of prokaryotes and eukaryotes alike. In an attempt to give a balanced view of how microorganisms have been able to exploit these simple carbon sources, we have asked a number ofleading scientists (modesty forbids our own inclusion here) to contribute chapters on their specialist areas of the subject.

This volume is a record of a meeting entitled "Heparin and Related Polysaccharides" that was held at the Biomedical Center, Uppsala, Sweden between 1-6 September 1991. The meeting was hosted by U. Lindahl, L. Kjellen and I. Bjork, who were helped in their preparations by a scientific advisory panel that included U. Abildgaard, B. Casu, E. Holmer and D. Lane. Altogether, 230 participants from 18 countries attended the meeting, and most were present to be included in a photograph, which is to be found at the end of this volume. The selection of presentations for inclusion in the Symposia of the meeting was made on the basis of the known high quality of the work of the individuals or groups involved. This, we believe, is reflected in the contents of the enclosed articles, which collectively give a comprehensive overview of the present state of knowledge of heparin and related compounds. Some of the areas covered are evolving or controversial and the views expressed in each article should be regarded as those of the author(s). The authors have taken various amounts of care to define all their abbreviations and some familiarity with the different forms of nomenclature used in the fields of polysaccharide chemistry and of the coagulation proteinases and their inhibitors will assist the reader.

Experts in microbiology and autoimmunity examine the association between microorganisms and the development of specific categories of autoimmune diseases. The opening chapters explore the bacterial induction of diseases considered autoimmune in nature. Subsequent chapters describe the role of viruses in the induction of these diseases and of diseases with an autoimmune component. Specific topics include: the role of streptococcal infection in rheumatic fever and the role of Klebsiella in the development of ankylosing spondylitis.

The need to identify and name organisms is fundamental to any area of biological science, basic or applied. In order to study or conduct research on an organism, or to convey information on this organism to others, we must be able to attribute to it a consistent label. Attribution of an incorrect label may have dire consequences if dangerous plant parasites are wrongly identified as members of an innocuous genus. Traditional aids to nematode identification (dichotomous keys) use systematic criteria not always well adapted to practical identification. Their reliance on dichotomous principlesdoes not allow for intra-taxon variability or for missing characters. They are difficult to update and they cannot keep pace with rapidly changing classifications. As experts in everyday life, we recognize a horse or a dog wi thout referring to the taxonomic descriptions of the genera Equus or Canis and their respective species. Problems in identification arise when we are not experts in the recognition of a particular organism, or group of organisms. Then, frequently in considerable frustration, we reflect on the usefulness of having the advice of an expert in this group. Tradi tional identification aids are useful tools for the expert identifiers, and for teaching. Their use is often difficult for general practitioners in nematology, and they may lead to incorrect identification, even at the genus level.

In 1964, the Fertilization and Gamete Physiology Research Training Program (FERGAP) was established at the Marine Biological Laboratories, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. Over the course of the next 12 years, under the directorship of Dr. Charles B. Metz, FERGAP brought together, trained, and inspired a generation of students in reproductive biology from all over the world. As students of C. B. Metz and as FERGAP trainees, we would like to dedicate this collected work on comparative mammalian fertilization to our teacher and mentor, Dr. Charles B. Metz. Like a number of authors contributing to this volume, we have been struck by the significant impact that C. B. Metz and FERGAP had on the development of students of reproductive biology. Applying both the classical and molecular techniques of cell biology and immunology to problems of gamete biology, Dr. Metz emphasized a comparative and analytical approach that was reflected in his own research on fertilization in Paramecia, sea urchins, frogs, and mammals. It is hoped that this volume will serve to stimulate students to discover the myriad of fascinating research problems in gamete and reproductive biology. Bonnie S. Dunbar Michael G. O'Rand Houston, Texas Chapel Hill, North Carolina ix Contents Part I COMPARATIVE OVERVIEW OF MAMMALIAN GAMETES The Coevolution of Mammalian Gametes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 J. Michael Bedford I. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 2. Gamete Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 2.1. Monotremes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Marsupials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Eutherians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 3. Gamete Maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 .1. Oocyte Maturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2. Sperm Maturation in the Male . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 . . . . . . . . . .

Volume 3 is devoted to the latest diagnostic technology for virus diseases, particularly molecular methodologies.

This treatise is focused on early aspects of fungal pathogenesis in plant and animal hosts. Our aim in choosing the topics and contributors was to demonstrate common approaches to studies of fungal-plant and fungal-animal interactions, particularly at the biochemical and molecular Ievels. For example, the initial events of adh"sion of fungal spores to the exposed surface tissues of the host are essential for subsequent invasion of the plant or animal and establishment of pathogenesis. A point of consensus among investigators who have directed their attention to such events in plants, insects, and vertebrates isthat spore adhesion to the host cuticle or epithelium is more than a simple binding event. lt is a complex and potentially pivotal process in fungal-plant interactions which "may involve the secretion of ftuids that prepare the infection court for the development of morphological stages of the germling" and subsequent invasion of the host (Nicholson and Epstein, Chapter 1). The attachment of the fungal propagule to the arthropod cuticle is also "mediated by the chemical components present on the outer layer of the spore wall and the epicuticle . . . . Initial attachment may be reinforced further by either the active secretion of adhesive materials or the modification of spore wall materiallocated at the [fungal spore arthropod] cuticle interface (Boucias and Pendland, Chapter 5).

It is now just 20 years since Gomatos and his co-workers at the Rocke feller University showed that the nucleic acid in reovirus particles is double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). This discovery created great excitement, for dsRNA was at that time under intense investigation as the replicative form of viral genomes consisting of single-stranded RNA. An equally interesting and important finding followed soon after: it was found that the reovirus genome consists, not of a single nucleic acid molecule, but of 10 discrete "segments," each with its specific sequence content and each transcribed into its own messenger RNA. It is clear now that these segments are genes. Not surprisingly, the availability of a viral genome 10 unlinked genes has permitted some unique lines of in consisting of vestigation in molecular biology. Mammalian and avian reoviruses proved to be but the first of several viruses recognized as sharing Similarity in size and morphology and ge nomes consisting of 10, II, or 12 separate genes. These viruses are dis tributed throughout living organisms; among the natural hosts of mem bers of this virus family are vertebrates, Insects, and plants. Members of the Reoviridae family differ widely in the virulence that they exhibit toward their hosts . . For example, the first discovered mam malian reovirus literally is, as the name signifies, a "respiratory enteric orphan" virus, that is, a virus unassociated with disease."

The MPSA international conference is held in a different country every two years. It is devoted to methods of determining protein structure with emphasis on chemistry and sequence analysis. Until the ninth conference, MPSA was an acronym for Methods in Protein Sequence Analysis. To give the conference more flexibility and breadth, the Scientific Advisory Committee of the lOth MPSA decided to change the name to Methods in Protein Structure Analysis; however, the emphasis remains on "methods" and on "chemistry. " In fact, this is the only major conference that is devoted to methods. The MPSA conference is truly international, a fact clearly reflected by the composi tion of its Scientific Advisory Committee. The Scientific Advisory Committee oversees the scientific direction of the MPSA and elects the chairman of the conference. Members of the committee are elected by active members, based on scientific standing and activity. The chairman, subject to approval of the Scientific Advisory Committee, appoints the Organizing Committee. It is this latter committee that puts the conference together. The lectures of the MPSA have traditionally been published in a special proceedings issue. This is different from, and more detailed than, the special MPSA issue of the Journal of Protein Chemistry in which only a brief description of the talks is given in short papers and abstracts. In the I Oth MPSA, about half the talks are by invited speakers and the remainder were selected from submitted short papers and abstracts."

The potato (Solanum tuberosum L. ) tuber is a major food source in many countries of the world, and subsequently potato has been the target of a good deal of effort directed at engineering disease and herbicide tolerance, and improvements in various crop characteristics. Consequently investigations into the regulation of gene expression in tubers is relevant to these endeavours, as tubers are the main target organ for modification of gene expression. We have been interested in the regulation of genes in tubers for these reasons. Morphologically tubers are modified stems, which have enlarged radially by limited cell division and substantial expansion. At the molecular level, tuber development is characterised by a massive increase in starch deposition and the synthesis of a limited number of abundant proteins. These include proteinase inhibitors and a 40kd group of proteins called patatin, which are acyl hydrolases. Together these proteins account for over 50% of tuber proteins (reviewed by Bevan, 1991). The synthesis of these proteins has parallels to the synthesis of other somatic storage proteins, especially the VSP proteins of soybean. In both potato and soybean, removal of the sink for these proteins (tubers and pods, respectively) causes deposition in other tissues (Staswick, 1990). It is hypothesised that transcriptional control of the genes encoding these proteins is regulated in part by source-sink relationships of metabolites or other factors. In the case of VSPs, both amino acid levels and jasmonic acid play a major regulatory role (Staswick et aI.

Lipids traditionally have been viewed as serving two functions: to form cellular membranes and to serve as energy stores. During the last two decades, a new role for lipids has taken center stage: lipids can act as signalling molecules. This book deals with a variety of lipids that have been shown to be messengers. Leading scientists explore all known lipid classes except steroid hormones. Researchers and educators in biochemistry as well as in molecular and cellular biology will appreciate this volume.

In this comprehensive reference, leading researchers examine the biology, molecular biology, and diseases of the Bunyaviridae, and provide up-to-date information on the genetic characterization and variations of this virus group. Chapters deal with the molecular biology of five genera: Bunyavirus, Hantavirus, Nairovirus, Phlebovirus, and Tospovirus. Chapters examine Bunyaviridae assembly and intracelluar protein transport as well as Bunyaviridae genetics. Contributors discuss the Bunyaviridae diseases, including the hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.

Corpora non agunt nisi fixata. This old saying of Ehrlich's describing the physi- ological role of receptors and their ligands might be paraphrased into Corpora non ambulant nisi fixata when considering lipid transport between and within cells. Volume 16 of Subcellular Biochemistry is intended to bring the reader up to date with this young field. Indeed, lipid transfer proteins have only recently become the subject of a more systematic study. In this book the current status and the emerging trends are discussed. Chapters cover protein-mediated transfer of fatty acids, phospholipids, phosphatidylinositol, glycolipids, dolichol, retinoids, and cholesterol in animal, plant, yeast, and other eukaryotic cells. Details are included of the study of lipid transport proteins by means of fluorescent phos- pholipid analogues and of the lipid transfer proteins as probes of membrane structure and function, as well as spontaneous lipid transfer as it occurs between biological membranes. Some of the chapters should be read in conjunction with Volume 13 of this series, devoted to fluorescence studies on biological mem- branes, in particular Chapter 2 (Somerharju et al. ) concentrating on studies in which fluorescent phospholipid analogues have been used. Chapter 10 (Bill- heimer and Reinhart), dealing with cholesterol trafficking, should be compared with Chapter 12 of Volume 13 (Van Blitterswijk), pointing to the existence of a preferential association of cholesterol with sphingomyelin, which drags choles- terol to the plasma membrane. In one chapter (Chapter 8: Van Dessel et al.

This fifth volume in the series The Plant Viruses, dealing with viruses with bipartite genomes, completes the coverage of viruses with isometric parti cles and genomes consisting of single-stranded, positive-sense RNA: viruses that have tripartite and monopartite genomes of this kind were dealt with in Volumes 1 and 3, respectively. How close are the affinities among the viruses within the groupings distinguished in this way? All those with tripartite genomes are considered to be sufficiently closely related to be included in the family Bromoviridae, whereas the monopartite-genome viruses covered in Volume 3 clearly are a much more diverse collection. Affinities among the viruses with bipartite genomes are considered in Chapter 1 of this volume, along with the possible origins, advantages, and disadvantages of these ge nomes. The conclusion reached from this assessment is that the bipartite genome viruses fall into four categories, those within each category having closer affinities with viruses not included in this book than with viruses in the other categories. No evidence was found that possession of a bipartite genome gives a virus overwhelming advantages over viruses of other sorts. More probably, any advantages are largely balanced by disadvantages, and bipartite genomes may be best considered simply as an alternative design for the hereditary material of a virus.

This book, Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of Enteric Diseases, is the outcome of the First International Rushmore Conference on Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of En teric Diseases, held in September 1995 at Rapid City, South Dakota. The meeting was or ganized by members of the North-Central Regional Research Committee "NC-62," a United States Department of Agriculture-sponsored consortium of swine enteric disease researchers from land-grant institutions. This conference was conceived as a forum for an interdisciplinary discussion of mechanisms of infectious diseases. It was intended that such a discussion would stimulate cross-fostering of ideas and nurture synergistic collabo rations among scientists working on enteric diseases of humans and animals_. In atten dance, there were more than 140 participants from the United States and 12 foreign countries representing all of the world's continents. Participants brought expertise from many disciplines in both human and veterinary medicine. Multiple perspectives and an in formal atmosphere provided an environment for lively and thought-provoking discussions. Conference topics included Pathobiology of Gastroenteric Diseases, Mechanisms of Iden tity and Interaction between Host and Pathogen, Effector Mechanisms in the Pathogenesis of Enteric Diseases, Regulation of Pathogenic Activity in Enteric Diseases, and Novel Ap proaches to Prevention and Therapy of Enteric Diseases. Ten internationally renowned scientists gave keynote presentations in addition to 30 oral presentations and 39 poster presentations. The keynote speakers were Drs."

Biotechnology is a word that was originally coined to describe the new processes which could be derived from our ability to manipulate, in vitro, the genetic material common to all organisms. I t has now become a generic term encompassing all "applications" of living systems, including the more traditional fermentation and agricultural industries. Recombinant DNA technology has opened up new opportunities for the exploitation of microorganisms and animal and plant cells as producers or modifiers of chemical and biological products. This series of handbooks deals exclusively with microorganisms which are at the forefront of the new technologies and brings together in each of its volumes the background information necessary to appreciate the historical development of the organisms making up a particular genus, the degree to which molecular biology has opened up new opportunities, and the place they occupy in today's biotechnology industry. Our aim was to make this primarily a practical approach, with emphasis on methodology, combining for the first time information which has largely been spread across a wide literature base or only touched upon briefly in review articles. Each handbook should provide the reader with a source text, from which the importance of the genus to his or her work can be identified, and a practical guide to the handling and exploitation of the organisms included.