Tracing the story of computing from Babylonian counting boards to smartphones, this inspiring textbook provides a concise overview of the key events in the history of computing, together with discussion exercises to stimulate deeper investigation into this fascinating area. Features: provides chapter introductions, summaries, key topics, and review questions; includes an introduction to analogue and digital computers, and to the foundations of computing; examines the contributions of ancient civilisations to the field of computing; covers the first digital computers, and the earliest commercial computers, mainframes and minicomputers; describes the early development of the integrated circuit and the microprocessor; reviews the emergence of home computers; discusses the creation of the Internet, the invention of the smartphone, and the rise of social media; presents a short history of telecommunications, programming languages, operating systems, software engineering, artificial intelligence, and databases.

This volume brings together a selection of key papers by this soil mechanics pioneer. The papers have been selected on the basis of their importance in the development of soil mechanics and to highlight the nature and range of subjects that Bishop investigated during the thirty-seven years of his career. Bishop's most influential paper was presented at an ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers) conference in Boulder, Colorado, in 1960, and while it made a big impression at the time, it is now in danger of disappearing from sight. In addition, two of Bishop's very significant papers were published in the late 1970s in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, not normal reading for the soil mechanics fraternity, and thus became known to only a few people. That has remained the case to this day, and the fact that these two papers have not been republished was the initial motivation for creating this volume. In addition, it is nearly 40 years since Bishop retired from his professorial position at Imperial College and a fitting time to remember Bishop with both a biography, The Bishop Method, and this volume of his papers. In addition to the Bishop papers, there is a paper by Laurie Wesley and Richard Pugh reflecting their research with Bishop. Separate papers were to have been written after the completion of their PhDs, with Bishop as the lead author, but because of his illness this didn't happen. The opportunity has now been taken to present the comprehensive research in these papers, as a tribute to their supervisor and mentor.

Militarizing Outer Space explores the dystopian and destructive dimensions of the Space Age and challenges conventional narratives of a bipolar Cold War rivalry. Concentrating on weapons, warfare and vio lence, this provocative volume examines real and imagined endeavors of arming the skies and conquering the heavens. The third and final volume in the groundbreaking European Astroculture trilogy, Militarizing Outer Space zooms in on the interplay between security, technopolitics and knowledge from the 1920s through the 1980s. Often hailed as the site of heavenly utopias and otherworldly salvation, outer space transformed from a promised sanctuary to a present threat, where the battles of the future were to be waged. Astroculture proved instrumental in fathoming forms and functions of warfare's futures past, both on earth and in space. The allure of dominating outer space, the book shows, was neither limited to the early twenty-first century nor to current American space force rhetorics.

The first comprehensive, empirically grounded, and independent study of the history of the IAEA. The International Atomic Energy Agency, which sends inspectors around the world to prevent states from secretly developing nuclear bombs, has one of the most important jobs in international security. At the same time, the IAEA is a global hub for the exchange of nuclear science and technology for peaceful purposes. Yet spreading nuclear materials and know-how around the world bears the unwanted risk of helping what the agency aims to halt: the emergence of new nuclear weapon states. In Inspectors for Peace, Elisabeth Roehrlich unravels the IAEA's paradoxical mission of sharing nuclear knowledge and technology while seeking to deter nuclear weapon programs. Founded in 1957 in an act of unprecedented cooperation between the Cold War superpowers, the agency developed from a small technical bureaucracy in war-torn Vienna to a key organization in the global nuclear order. Roehrlich argues that the IAEA's dual mandate, though apparently contradictory, was pivotal in ensuring the organization's legitimacy, acceptance, and success. For its first decade of existence, the IAEA was primarily a scientific and technical organization; it was not until the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons entered into force in 1970 that the agency took on the far-reaching verification and inspection role for which it is now most widely known. While the Fukushima nuclear disaster and the Iran negotiations made the IAEA's name famous, the organization's remarkable history remains strikingly absent from public knowledge. Drawing on extensive archival research, including firsthand access to newly opened records at the IAEA Archives in Vienna, Inspectors for Peace provides the first comprehensive, empirically grounded, and independent study on the history of the IAEA. Roehrlich also interviewed leading policymakers and officials, including Hans Blix and Nobel Peace laureate Mohamed ElBaradei, the agency's former heads. This book offers insight not only for students, scholars, and policy experts but for anyone interested in the history of the nuclear age, the Cold War, and the role of international organizations in shaping our world.

Laika began her life as a stray dog on the streets of Moscow and died in 1957 aboard the Soviet satellite Sputnik II. Initially the USSR reported that Laika, the first animal to orbit the earth, had survived in space for seven days, providing valuable data that would make future manned space flight possible. People believed that Laika died a painless death as her oxygen ran out. Only in recent decades has the real story become public: Laika died after only a few hours in orbit when her capsule overheated. Laika's Window positions Laika as a long overdue hero for leading the way to human space exploration. Kurt Caswell examines Laika's life and death and the speculation surrounding both. Profiling the scientists behind Sputnik II, he studies the political climate driven by the Cold War and the Space Race that expedited the satellite's development. Through this intimate portrait of Laika, we begin to understand what the dog experienced in the days and hours before the launch, what she likely experienced during her last moments, and what her flight means to history and to humanity. While a few of the other space dog flights rival Laika's in endurance and technological advancements, Caswell argues that Laika's flight serves as a tipping point in space exploration "beyond which the dream of exploring nearby and distant planets opened into a kind of fever from which humanity has never recovered." Examining the depth of human empathy-what we are willing to risk and sacrifice in the name of scientific achievement and our exploration of the cosmos, and how politics and marketing can influence it-Laika's Windowis also about our search to overcome loneliness and the role animals play in our drive to look far beyond the earth for answers.

All the Facts presents a history of the role of information in the United States since 1870, when the nation began a nearly 150-year period of economic prosperity and technological and scientific transformations. James Cortada argues that citizens and their institutions used information extensively as tools to augment their work and private lives and that they used facts to help shape how the nation evolved during these fourteen decades. He argues that information's role has long been a critical component of the work, play, culture, and values of this nation, and no more so than during the twentieth century when its function in society expanded dramatically. While elements of this story have been examined by thousands of scholars--such as the role of radio, newspapers, books, computers, and the Internet, about such institutions as education, big business, expanded roles of governments from town administration to the state house, from agriculture to the services and information industries--All the Facts looks at all of these elements holistically, providing a deeper insight into the way the United States evolved over time. An introduction and 11 chapters describe what this information ecosystem looked like, how it evolved, and how it was used. For another vast layer of information about this subject the reader is directed to the detailed bibliographic essay in the back of this book. It includes a narrative history, case studies in the form of sidebars, and stories illustrating key points. Readers will find, for example, the story of how the US postal system helped create today's information society, along with everything from books and newspapers to TV, computers, and the Internet. The build-up to what many today call the Information Age took a long time to achieve and continues to build momentum. The implications for the world, and not just for the United States, are as profound as any mega-trend one could identify in the history of humankind. All the Facts presents this development thoroughly in an easy-to-digest format that any lover of history, technology, or the history of information and business will enjoy.

This comprehensive chronology of the automobile covers its engineering as well as the social, cultural, and political impact of the car from the invention of the wheel to the O.J. Simpson car chase. It examines the auto industry, the road and roadside, the car in popular culture, gasoline/fuel history, the spatial transformation of cities, air pollution, critics of car culture, traffic accidents, the globalization of car culture, and much more. This is a reference guide for students and scholars of transportation history as well as anyone who has ever asked When did Japan export the first car to the U.S.? or When and how was smog discovered? or What make of car did Chuck Berry drive?

James Bond's amazing gadgets reveal both enthusiasm about technology and fear of its potential ramifications. The popularity of the 007 franchise depends on a seductive formula of sex, violence, and snobbery. Much of its appeal, too, lies in its gadgets: slick, somewhat improbable technological devices that give everyone's favorite secret agent the edge over his adversaries. In Equipping James Bond, Andre Millard chronicles a hundred-year history of espionage technology through the lens of Ian Fleming's infamous character and his ingenious spyware. Beginning with the creation of MI6, the British secret service, Millard traces the development of espionage technology from the advanced weaponry of the nineteenth century to the evolving threat of computer hacking and surveillance. Arguing that the gadgets in the books and films articulate the leading edge of technological awareness at the time, Millard describes how Bond goes from protecting 1950s England from criminal activity to saving a world threatened by nuclear bombs, poison gas, and attacks from space. As a modern and modernizing hero, Bond has to keep up with the times. His film franchise is committed to equipping both Bond and his adversaries with the latest technological gadgets. Simultaneously, Millard stresses, the villains and threats that Bond faces embody contemporary fears about the downside of technological change. Taking a wide-ranging look at factual (and fictional) technology, Millard views the James Bond universe as evidence for popular perceptions of technological development as both inevitably progressive and apocalyptically threatening.

Exploring how scholars use digital resources to reconstruct the 19th century, this volume probes key issues in the intersection of digital humanities and history. Part I examines the potential of online research tools for literary scholarship while Part II outlines a prehistory of digital virtuality by exploring specific Victorian cultural forms.

The history of science is not just a chronicle of technical achievements, but a human story of discovery intertwined with religion, philosophy, economics, and technology. The modern world began in the sixteenth century when Europeans began to acquire an appreciation for how their achievements surpassed those of the ancient Greeks and Romans. Western Civilization organized itself around the idea that human progress, both technological and moral, was achievable and desirable. Science emerged during the seventeenth century in Europe when people learned to subordinate reason to empiricism. Inspired by the example of physics, men such as Robert Boyle began the process of changing alchemy into the exact science of chemistry. During the eighteenth century, European society became more secular and tolerant. Philosophers and economists developed many of the ideas that determine modern social theories and economic policies. In the latter half of the eighteenth century, the Industrial Revolution fundamentally transformed the world by increasing productivity through specialization and the application of machine power. People became more affluent, better educated, and urbanized. Endemic poverty was eradicated, and the world entered an era of unprecedented prosperity and progress.

Home Fires tells the fascinating story of how changes in home heating over the nineteenth century spurred the growth of networks that helped remake American society. Sean Patrick Adams reconstructs the ways in which the "industrial hearth" appeared in American cities, the methods that entrepreneurs in home heating markets used to convince consumers that their product designs and fuel choices were superior, and how elite, middle-class, and poor Americans responded to these overtures. Adams depicts the problem of dwindling supplies of firewood and the search for alternatives; the hazards of cutting, digging, and drilling in the name of home heating; the trouble and expense of moving materials from place to place; the rise of steam power; the growth of an industrial economy; and questions of economic efficiency, at both the individual household and the regional level. Home Fires makes it clear that debates over energy sources, energy policy, and company profit margins have been around a long time. The challenge of staying warm in the industrializing North becomes a window into the complex world of energy transitions, economic change, and emerging consumerism. Readers will understand the struggles of urban families as they sought to adapt to the ever-changing nineteenth-century industrial landscape. This perspective allows a unique view of the development of an industrial society not just from the ground up but from the hearth up.

An approachable, accessible history of timekeeping and the impact of the increasing precision and accuracy of time on humanity. Western culture has been obsessed with regulating society by the precise, accurate measurement of time since the Middle Ages. In On Time, Ken Mondschein explores the paired development of concepts and technologies of timekeeping with human thought. Without clocks, he argues, the modern world as we know it would not exist. From the astronomical timekeeping of the ancient world to the tower clocks of the Middle Ages to the seagoing chronometer, the quartz watch, and the atomic clock, greater precision and accuracy have had profound effects on human society-which, in turn, has driven the quest for further precision and accuracy. This quest toward automation-which gave rise to the Gregorian calendar, the factory clock, and even the near-disastrous Y2K bug-has led to profound social repercussions and driven the creation of the modern scientific mindset. Surveying the evolution of the clock from prehistory to the twenty-first century, Mondschein explains how both the technology and the philosophy behind Western timekeeping regimes came to take over the entire world. On Time is a story of thinkers, philosophers, and scientists, and of the thousand decisions that continue to shape our daily lives.

The conventional understanding of Japanese wartime ideology has for years been summed up by just a few words: anti-modern, spiritualist, and irrational. Yet such a cut-and-dried picture is not at all reflective of the principles that guided national policy from 1931-1945. Challenging the status quo, Constructing East Asia examines how Japanese intellectuals, bureaucrats, and engineers used technology as a system of power and mobilization-what historian Aaron Moore terms a "technological imaginary"-to rally people in Japan and its expanding empire. By analyzing how these different actors defined technology in public discourse, national policies, and large-scale infrastructure projects, Moore reveals wartime elites as far more calculated in thought and action than previous scholarship allows. Moreover, Moore positions the wartime origins of technology deployment as an essential part of the country's national policy and identity, upending another predominant narrative-namely, that technology did not play a modernizing role in Japan until the "economic miracle" of the postwar years.

ThisvolumehasitsoriginsinameetingheldatMicrosoftResearch,Cambridge,in April2009tocelebrateTonyHoare's75thBirthday(actually11Jan2009). Allthe technicalpapersexceptforthosewrittenbyAbramsky,Jackson,JonesandMeyer arebased-sometimesclosely,sometimesnot-onpresentationsgivenatthatme- ing. TheideaforthemeetingaroseinconversationsbetweenourselvesandAndrew HerbertofMicrosoft,whohostedatrulymemorableandhappyevent. ThemeetingwasorganisedbyourselvesandKenWood,withthe?nancials- portofMicrosoftResearchandFormalSystems(Europe)Ltd,andheldovertwo days. We wouldlike to recordparticularthanksto Angela Still of Microsoftfor makingallthelocalarrangementsatCambridgeandmuchmore:themeetingwould nothavehappenedwithouther. Whilethemajorityofthepapersinthisvolumearetechnical,weaskedauthorsto re?ectonthein?uenceofHoare'sworkontheirown?eldsandtomakeappropriate remarksonit. Allthetechnicalpaperswererefereed. DiscussionswithWayneWheelerofSpringerinspiredthetwoofustowritethe scienti?cbiographyofHoarethatisthe?rstpaperinthisvolume. Thoughwehave bothknownTonywellformanyyears,wewereamazedathowmanydiscoveries abouthimwemadeduringtheprocessofwritingthisarticle. WewouldlikethankWayneandhisassistantSimonReesfortheirhelpinprep- ingthisvolumeaswellastheirpatience. Muchoftheworkingatheringthepapers, ensuringconsistencyofLaTeXstyles,etc. ,wasdonebyLucyLiofOxfordUniv- sityComputingLaboratoryandwethankherwarmly. Tragically,KenWood'swifeLisadiedafteralongillnessinSeptember2009. Wededicatethisvolumetohermemory. January2010 CliffJones BillRoscoe ix Contents 1 Insight,InspirationandCollaboration...1 C. B. JonesandA. W. Roscoe 2 FromCSPtoGameSemantics...33 SamsonAbramsky 3 OnMereologiesinComputingScience...47 DinesBjorner 4 Roles,Stacks,Histories:ATripleforHoare...71 Johannes Borgstrom, .. Andrew D. Gordon, andRiccardoPucella 5 ForwardwithHoare...101 MikeGordonandHel 'ene ' Collavizza 6 ProbabilisticProgrammingwithCoordination...123 HeJifeng 7 TheOperationalPrincipleandProblemFrames...143 MichaelJackson 8 TheRoleofAuxiliaryVariablesintheFormal DevelopmentofConcurrentPrograms...167 C. B. Jones 9 AvoidaVoid:TheEradicationofNullDereferencing...189 BertrandMeyer,AlexanderKogtenkov,andEmmanuelStapf 10 UnfoldingCSP...213 MikkelBundgaardandRobinMilner xi xii Contents 11 Quicksort:CombiningConcurrency,Recursion, andMutableDataStructures...2 29 DavidKitchin,AdrianQuark,andJayadevMisra 12 TheThousand-and-OneCryptographers...255 A. K. McIverandC. C. Morgan 13 On Process-AlgebraicExtensions of Metric TemporalLogic...283 ChristophHaase,Joel .. Ouaknine,andJamesWorrell 14 FunwithTypeFunctions...301 OlegKiselyov,SimonPeytonJones,andChung-chiehShan 15 OnCSPandtheAlgebraicTheoryofEffects...333 RobvanGlabbeekandGordonPlotkin 16 CSPisExpressiveEnoughfor ...371 A. W. Roscoe 17 TheTokeneerExperiments...405 JimWoodcock,EmineGokc .. ,eAydal,andRodChapman Chapter1 Insight,InspirationandCollaboration C. B. JonesandA. W. Roscoe Abstract TonyHoare'smanycontributionstocomputingsciencearemarkedby insightthatwasgroundedinpracticalprogramming. Manyofhispapershavehada profoundimpactontheevolutionofour?eld;theyhavemoreoverprovidedasource ofinspirationtoseveralgenerationsofresearchers. Weexaminethedevelopmentof hisworkthroughareviewofthedevelopmentofsomeofhismostin?uentialpieces ofworksuchasHoarelogic,CSPandUnifyingTheories. 1. 1 Introduction To many who know Tony Hoare only through his publications, they must often looklikepolishedgemsthatcomefromamindthatrarelymakesfalsesteps,nor evenperhapshastoworkattheircreation. Assooften,thisimpressionisafurther complimenttosomeonewhoactuallyaddstoveryhardworkandmanydiscarded attempts the ?nal polish thatmakes complexideas relatively easy for the reader tocomprehend. Asindicatedonpagexiof[HJ89],hisideastypicallygothrough manyrevisions. ThetwoauthorsofthecurrentpapereachhadthehonourofTonyHoaresuperv- ingtheirdoctoralstudiesinOxford. Theyknowat?rsthandhiskindandgenerous styleandwillcountitasanachievementifthispapercanconveysomethingofthe workingmethodsofsomeonebigenoughtoeschewcompetitionandpointscoring. Indeedit willbe apparentfromthe followingsectionshowoften,havingstarted somenewwayofthinkingorexcitingideas,hehappilyleavestheirexplorationand developmenttoothers. Wehavebothbene?tedpersonallyfromthis. C. B. Jones( ) SchoolofComputingScience,NewcastleUniversity,UK e-mail:cliff. jones@ncl. ac. uk A. W. Roscoe OxfordUniversityComputingLaboratory,UK e-mail:Bill. Roscoe@comlab. ox. ac. uk C. B. Jonesetal. (eds. ),Re?ectionsontheWorkofC. A. R.

Some years ago when I was chair of the department of civil and environmental engineering, a colleague introduced me to a visitor from Sandia Laboratories, perhaps the largest developer of armaments and weapons systems in the world. We had a nice visit, and as we chatted, the talk naturally centered on the visitor's engineering work. It turned out that his job in recent years had been to develop a new acoustic triggering device for bombs. As he explained it, the problem with bombs was that the plunger triggering mechanism could fail if the bomb hit at an angle, and thus the explosives would not detonate. To get around this, he dev- oped an acoustic trigger that would detonate the explosives as soon as the bomb hit any solid surface, even at an angle. As he talked, I watched his face. His enthusiasm for his work was clearly e- dent, and his animated explanations of what they had developed at Sandia exuded pride and excitement. I thought about asking him what it felt like to have spent his engineering career designing better ways to kill people or to destroy property - the sole purpose of a bomb. I wondered how many people had been killed because this man had dev- oped a clever acoustic triggering device. But good sense and decorum prevailed and I did not ask him such questions. We parted as friends and in good spirits.

This book follows the fraught attempts of engineers to identify with Korea as a whole. It is for engineers, both Korean and non-Korean, who seek to become better critical analysts of their own expertise, identities, and commitments. It is for non-engineers who encounter or are affected by Korean engineers and engineering, and want to understand and engage them. It is for researchers who serve as critical participants in the making of engineers and puzzle over the contents and effects of techno-national formation.

This book contains the proceedings of HMM2012, the 4th International Symposium on Historical Developments in the field of Mechanism and Machine Science (MMS). These proceedings cover recent research concerning all aspects of the development of MMS from antiquity until the present and its historiography: machines, mechanisms, kinematics, dynamics, concepts and theories, design methods, collections of methods, collections of models, institutions and biographies.

From ABDUL to ZEKE, this handbook covers all Allied designations for Japanese Navy/Army aircraft of WWII. Each aircraft is presented alphabetically according to its code name, and is also cross-referenced to its official (long) designations and project (short) designations.

This book provides a concise overview of human prehistory. It shows how an understanding of the distant past offers new perspectives on present-day challenges facing our species - and how we can build a sustainable future for all life on planet Earth. Deborah Barsky tells a fascinating story of the long-term evolution of human culture and provides up-to-date examples from the archaeological record to illustrate the different phases of human history. Barsky also presents a refreshing and original analysis about issues plaguing modern globalized society, such as racism, institutionalized religion, the digital revolution, human migrations, terrorism, and war. Written in an accessible and engaging style, Human Prehistory is aimed at an introductory-level audience. Students will acquire a comprehensive understanding of the interdisciplinary, scientific study of human prehistory, as well as the theoretical interpretations of human evolutionary processes that are used in contemporary archaeological practice. Definitions, tables, and illustrations accompany the text.

William Kamkwamba was born in Malawi, a country where magic ruled and modern science was mystery. It was also a land withered by drought and hunger. But William had read about windmills, and he dreamed of building one that would bring to his small village a set of luxuries that only 2 percent of Malawians could enjoy: electricity and running water. His neighbors called him misala--crazy--but William refused to let go of his dreams. With a small pile of once-forgotten science textbooks; some scrap metal, tractor parts, and bicycle halves; and an armory of curiosity and determination, he embarked on a daring plan to forge an unlikely contraption and small miracle that would change the lives around him.

The Boy Who Harnessed the Wind is a remarkable true story about human inventiveness and its power to overcome crippling adversity. It will inspire anyone who doubts the power of one individual's ability to change his community and better the lives of those around him.

Early applications of Navier's beam theory to the rational design of structures are documented in the Annales of the French Ecole des Ponts et Chaussees and refer to the design of three wooden bridges built in France in the 1840's. Revisiting these examples, the book provides documentation on the progressive establishment of the new design approach, based on the theory of structural mechanics rather than empirical knowledge. The bridges concerned were built according to the structural scheme patented by Ithiel Town in the USA, witnessing the diffusion in Europe of the American advancements in bridge design, circulated by the travel reports of French engineers from the Ecole. Through the exam of French treatises discussing the progress of theoretical formulations in parallel with experimental findings in the 18th and 19th centuries, the book retraces as well the long path which led to the formulation of Navier's theory. The relevant scientific debate dealt mainly with the specific case of wood bridges; the text outlines a brief history of bridges built in the Alpine area at the time, based on unpublished iconographic materials from various European archives.

All variations and markings are covered in this the third book in a multi-volume series.

A deep dive into the political roots of advertising on the internet The contemporary internet's de facto business model is one of surveillance. Browser cookies follow us around the web, Amazon targets us with eerily prescient ads, Facebook and Google read our messages and analyze our patterns, and apps record our every move. In Profit over Privacy, Matthew Crain gives internet surveillance a much-needed origin story by chronicling the development of its most important historical catalyst: web advertising. The first institutional and political history of internet advertising, Profit over Privacy uses the 1990s as its backdrop to show how the massive data-collection infrastructure that undergirds the internet today is the result of twenty-five years of technical and political economic engineering. Crain considers the social causes and consequences of the internet's rapid embrace of consumer monitoring, detailing how advertisers and marketers adapted to the existential threat of the internet and marshaled venture capital to develop the now-ubiquitous business model called "surveillance advertising." He draws on a range of primary resources from government, industry, and the press and highlights the political roots of internet advertising to underscore the necessity of political solutions to reign in unaccountable commercial surveillance. The dominant business model on the internet, surveillance advertising is the result of political choices-not the inevitable march of technology. Unlike many other countries, the United States has no internet privacy law. A fascinating prehistory of internet advertising giants like Google and Facebook, Profit over Privacy argues that the internet did not have to turn out this way and that it can be remade into something better.