This book describes how the effects of nature's own nuclear reactors have shaped the Earth, the Solar System, the Universe, and the history of life as we know it. It focuses on observed effects that are poorly explained by our standard theories, identifies certain errors in those theories, and shows how these effects are caused by natural nuclear fission reactors. The theory of Plate Tectonics is wrong, and it is shown that expansion of the Earth causes continental drift. A physically reasonable mechanism is proposed for expansion and observational data are presented to show that this occurs. Evolution is explained as punctuated equilibrium, with mutations caused by abrupt surges of radiation, and related life forms that have been interpreted as seperate species are actually the result of radiation injury. This view is particularly effective as applied to humans. The ability of the dinosaurs to live so large is explained by use of Earth Expansion and a more massive atmosphere to provide buoyancy and effective transpiration of oxygen. These effects also explain how pterodactyls and ancient birds could fly. Expansion induced by impacts at the end of the Cretaceous caused the atmosphere to thin and the dinosaurs collapsed. Analysis of geological and biological data supports this. The astronomical distance scale is shown to be wrong, based on the misconception that trigonometric parallax is an absolute measurement. It isn't, and the method is led astray by the overwhelming number of asteroidal fragments masquerading as stars. The measurements of an expanding Universe are shown to be in error, and an expanding Universe is not needed by an alternative interpretation of Einstein's equations. This interpretation is based on the equal creation of matter and antimatter, which is known to occur. Spiral galaxies are not vast Island Universes of stars as we have thought, but are shown to be the strewn fields of debris from the nuclear fission detonation of distant planets.The Universe is not made up of 96% Dark Matter and Dark Energy, but is instead very ordinary. Abundant evidence and references provide support for all these interpretations. This book opens new opportunities for research by correcting several fundamental errors in our concepts of the Earth, Life, and the Universe.

In the field of radiation physics, the study and measurement of the gamma-ray energy emitted from radionuclides are very important, and have many applications in different fields of sciences such as in the study of nuclear structure, the identification of radioisotopes and their activities, estimating absorbed dose, and the determination of interaction cross- sections, in which gamma-rays are either incident or outgoing from the reaction. Newly, developments in gamma-ray spectrometry have expanded and have been applied in diverse fields such as astrophysics and medical therapy for which highly accurate measurements of gamma-rays are needed. This has been achieved by way of tracing the interaction of gamma-rays in the semiconductor and scintillation detectors and the energy deposited within.

Radioactivity in building materials is responsible for high levels of indoor exposure to ionizing radiation. The study of Radioactivity in raw materials used in manufacture of building materials is therefore of fundamental importance in setting regulations for the safe use of building materials. This book highlights measurement of radioactivity in Limestone and the effect dose rates emanating from the naturally occurring radioactive materials in the Limestone. The book therefore forms good basic knowledge for use by undergraduate students in the field on radiation protection.

Recent years have seen the development of many fields of gas detectors. The Multi-Wire Proportional Chamber (MWPC) and MICROMEGAS (Micro-Mesh Gas Structure) appeared successively as the very promising detectors. They are major families of position detectors in High Energy Physics, detect and localize energy deposit by charged particles over large area. In this work, MATLAB simulations of This Detectors are represented. The aim of this work is to simulate the potential and electric field distribution in (MWPC), to clarify the phenomenon of induction of signals in the electrodes. Initially, we focus on electronic and ionic currents induced, then; we will calculate the total charge induced. We choose Argon-isobutane(Ar-iC4H10) and Argon-dimethyl-ether (DME) gas mixture, using 55Fe radioactive 5.9keV X-rays Source. In the normal condition, (T=298k, p=1atm), we simulate the temporal structure of the current signal, and the contribution of the total charge induced. The pre-amplified signal is evaluated. These results are compared to other results published. We remark the dependence of the output signal of MICROMEGAS detector and improving the performance of this detector.

In the case of accidental release of radionuclides from TRIGA research reactor, the extracted results of the present study will be a valuable guide for adopting radiological safety measures, which is required to ensure the safety to the community living in the vicinity of the reactor site. An effort has been made in this book to assess the radiological consequences of the deposition of radioiodine on ground, vegetation, milk and meat due to accidental release of 131I, 132I, 133I, 134I and 135I from TRIGA research. Dose measurement data like average wind velocity, wind frequency and temperature at the reactor site have been analyzed. The radioactivities in the reactor core and release rate for theses radionuclides as well as Gaussian diffusion factor as a function of downwind distance have also been investigated. The air concentrations in sixteen directions have been estimated and maximum was found at 110 m distance from the core of the reactor for all directions. The considerable frequencies were found mainly in eight directions and maximum was found in S-erection. Hence, air concentrations and radiological doses in the different pathways were calculated in the eight directions.

Experimental determination of detector efficiency is an inflexible and a time consuming process, so the interest for computational techniques based on different principles, models, and assumptions increased during the last years. In this work the Full-Energy Peak Efficiency (FEPE) of two different NaI(Tl) scintillation detectors (2''x2''and 3"x3") are calculated for coaxial cylindrical sources with radii greater than the detectors faces radii. This was calculated by the effective solid angle method, taking into account the source self attenuation effect.

In this book some applications of artificial neural network in nuclear engineering are presented. In densitometry, number of scattered and counted gamma photons highly depends on material density. Using this relation, two different multi-layer perceptron artificial neural networks are proposed to predict material density. The results of proposed ANNs show that the presented model could be employed in densitometry of materials. Furthermore, the development of an ANN model for prediction of the highest value of X-ray yield in PFs is showed. The comparison between predicted and experimental results by ANN model illustrates that there is a good adaptation between them. So, the MLP architecture can be applied as a high efficient tool to predict the highest value of X-ray yield in the PFs.

In the field of radiation physics, the study and measurement of the gamma-ray energy emitted from radionuclides are very important, and have many applications in different fields of sciences such as in the study of nuclear structure, the identification of radioisotopes and their activities, estimating absorbed dose, and the determination of interaction cross-sections, in which gamma-rays are either incident or outgoing from the reaction. Newly, developments in gamma-ray spectrometry have expanded and have been applied in diverse fields such as astrophysics and medical therapy for which highly accurate measurements of gamma-rays are needed. This has been achieved by way of tracing the interaction of gamma-rays in the semiconductor and scintillation detectors and the energy deposited within.

One of the missing keys in the present understanding of the spin structure of the nucleon is the contribution from the gluons: the so called gluon polarisation. This quantity can be determined in DIS through the Photon-Gluon Fusion (PGF) process, in which two analysis methods may be used: (i) identifying open charm events or (ii) selecting events with high transverse momentum (pT) hadrons. The data used in the present work were collected by the COMPASS Experiment, where a naturally polarised muon beam of 160 GeV, impinging on a polarised nucleon fixed target, is used. The results for the gluon polarisation from high pT are presented. The gluon polarisation result for high pT hadrons is divided, for the first time, into three independent x_G bins at leading order (LO). A new weighted method based on a neural network approach is used.

A long and close review of proven basics overlooked in the field of nuclear physics, together with the many confirmed discoveries of the past several decades, has now revealed, 1.how the strong force of attraction profile is developed by the proton and neutron, and cause of its relatively short range, 2.the make-up of the quark and gluon of the proton and neutron, 3.the actual form and operation of the proton and neutron and their necessary interactions, and why they have been so difficult to identify, 4.how the four forces, although all comprised of the same and smallest (Planck's length) force, can be so different in profile, function, magnitude and distance of interaction, 5.the precise interactions of the electron with its proton and neutron, 6.how and why the 2s thru 7s orbitals develop their spherical nodes wherein electrons are virtually absent, 7.why the stronger neutron is dependent on its proton for longevity, and how it is accomplished, 8.where the electron's point of rest for its mass of 9.109 382 93 x 10 -31 kg is, when it has a path of uncertainty throughout its orbital, 9.how the neutron acquires its neutral charge, and 10. how the attributes of matter transform from all the attributes of energy. The ten above listed questions are a few of the main questions of long standing disclosed in this first 2012 publication. Several other topics, such as the variety of orbital constructs, and the interacting force of gravity will publish later this year. We expect, and anxiously look forward to others discovering more than is presented herein.

A modern understanding of the nucleon's spin structure is presented. Polarisation dependent deep inelastic experiments have shown that the helicity contribution of quarks to the nucleon spin is much smaller than expected from the simple quark model. This observation and the role of the triangle anomaly lead to the conclusion that gluons - if strongly polarised, might solve the spin problem of the nucleon. Therefore a direct gluon polarisation measurement is the one of main goals of the COMPASS experiment spin physics programme. New results for the gluon polarisation are obtained. The results strongly support the hypothesis, that the gluons inside the nucleon are weakly or not polarised. Therefore, the possible importance of quark and gluon angular momenta are discussed. A short review of the nucleon's spin structure results obtained in a Lattice Quantum Chromodynamics approach is presented. The concept that the presence of the angular momentum of quarks inside nucleon is related to the spatial deformation of the quark densities in the transverse plane is also reviewed.

Alpha particle induced reaction on the two gallium isotopes has been studied in the intermediate energies up to 70MeV.The excitation functions of the six reaction channels were calculated using the semiclassical model computer code COMPLET.The theoretical results arecompared with the experimental excitation functions obtained from EXFOR data source, IAEA. Ingeneral the shape of the theoretical excitation functions were fairly reproduced with the experimental results.The study shows thatat intermediate energy, alpha induced reactions on medium weight nuclei occurs through pre-equilibrium as well as equilibrium nucleus stage

Physicists believe that they know very well about the structure of protons and neutrons. Is it really so? It appears that there are nearly twenty unsolved experimental results in this field, some of them exist nearly 80 years without explanation. This book discusses these mysteries in language understandable by many popular science readers. If you have a good understanding in scientific issues, then here you will find a unique opportunity to solve them... by yourself Eliyahu Comay is a theoretical physicist, born in 1932, who published scientific articles with predictions which were almost always against wall to wall consensus of the physicist community. All his predictions appeared to be correct to date. Among others, he predicted that the Higgs particle, Dirac monopoles, glueballs, SQM, pentaquarks, di-barions and the electric Aharanov-Bohm effect would not be found.

The studies of radionuclide distributions in foodstuffs and the environment provide vital radiological baseline information. This is essential in understanding human exposure from natural and man-made sources of radiation and also necessary in establishing rules and regulations relating to radiation protection. Another important fact is the importation of contaminated food from a region that affected by a major nuclear accident can indirectly affect people health anywhere. In this book result of investigations of natural and man-made radionuclides in most of foodstuffs consumed in the Sudan determined by gamma spectrometry is reported. Estimate of the annual effective dose due to ingestion of radionuclides is presented in comparison with similar studies globally. Details of foodstuff categorization based on its type, origin and consumption is presented. The reported analyzed radionuclides included U & Th series, K and Cs. Investigations showed effective dose up-to 6.5 mSv for young which are relatively high compare to ICRP recommendations. The book also addresses the issue of developing national limits of foodstuffs (intervention levels) based on the establishment of baseline data

An understanding of the effects of electronic correlations in quantum systems is one of the most challenging problems in physics, partly due to the relevance in modern high technology. Yet there exist hardly any books on the subject which try to give a comprehensive overview on the field covering insulators, semiconductors, as well as metals. The present book tries to fill that gap.It intends to provide graduate students and researchers a comprehensive survey of electron correlations, weak and strong, in insulators, semiconductors and metals. This topic is a central one in condensed matter and beyond that in theoretical physics. The reader will have a better understanding of the great progress which has been made in the field over the past few decades.

2013 Reprint of 1958 Edition. Exact facsimile of the original edition, not reproduced with Optical Recognition Software. In 1947, Bethe Edited the Los Alamos Report "Blast Wave" Rept. LA-2000], one of his most cited works among shock physicists, which describes how a nuclear weapon blast wave develops over time and distant. This report also contains contributions by John von Neumann, John Magee, Klaus Fuchs and other prominent scientists. Reprints the expanded edition of 1958 with all supplements. Very rare in the original edition.

This book deals with some perennial problems in nuclear physics originating from the traditional picture of the nucleus as a classical liquid drop. It has introduced a relatively new model called Infinite Nuclear Matter Model in which the classical liquid has been replaced by quantum mechanical many-fermionic liquid in accord with the true nature of the matter contained in the nucleus. The model is based on a many-body theoretic foundation with the generalized Hugenholtz-Van Hove theorem playing the pivotal role. Thus the two main features of nuclear dynamics namely, the liquid and shell features are taken into account non-perturbatively at a microscopic level. Besides solving the long standing problem of the saturation properties of infinite nuclear matter using the nuclear masses only leading to the resolution of r0 -paradox, it has succeeded in determining the incompressibility in a more or less model independent manner following an Ab initio method with the input of nuclear ground state properties only. The model has given rise to a mass formula for nuclei with unique success in predicting unknown masses and unraveling new nuclear phenomena.

The physics program with CLAS at Jefferson Lab has collected a large amount of data on the spin structure functions of the nucleon by using polarized electron beam directed on polarized NH3 and ND3 targets. In these experiments, the virtual photon asymmetry and the spin structure functions were measured with an unprecedented precision in a large kinematic range. The data help us to better understand the spin structure of the nucleon, especially in the transition region between hadronic and quark-gluon degrees of freedom. Therefore, it will be possible to put limits on quark-hadron duality, test pQCD predictions for the quark polarization at large Bjorken x, perform more precise calculations of higher-twist matrix elements in the framework of the Operator Product Expansion and get a glimpse of A1 at high x. In addition, using available proton and deuteron data together and utilizing a new unfolding technique, the spin structure functions for the neutron in the resonance region are extracted.

This book demonstrates how NMR relaxation can be applied for structural diagnostics of chemical compounds, recognition of weak intermolecular interactions, determinations of internuclear distances and lengths of chemical bonds when compounds under investigation can exist only in solutions.* Written as a textbook for chemists, demanding little background in physics and NMR* Its practical approach helps the reader to apply the techniques in the lab* First book to teach NMR Relaxation techniques to chemists

The Tevatron and Large Hadron Collider (LHC) experiments, unlike the B-Factories, have the unique opportunity to study the production and the decays of b-hadrons with c and s quarks, and among them especially the b-baryons which are the less known to date. The Collider Detector at Fermilab (CDF) experiment pioneered this eld of research. Moreover, it currently has the world's largest data sample of bottom baryons and this is mainly due to the combination of the large accumulated integrated luminosity delivered and the use of the displaced track trigger, a sophisticated piece of hardware, which is capable to select online events with secondary vertices, a typical feature of heavy hadrons decays, thus rejecting most part of the background from light quarks.

X-ray vision at first was the revival of the phantasmagoria and ground-penetrating sight of earlier centuries attached to the new technology of X-rays in the early twentieth century. The image-idea of the existence of rays that allow prepared eyes to see into clothing, through walls and into the earth, not feasible in fact, generated fictions and surrogates of how living beings would experience such an ability, what they would do with it and what it would do to them. Expressing both a need and a desire, X-ray vision underwent its own development gathering elements of play, inquiry and assault independent of X-ray technology but converging with microscopy, telescopy, television and surveillance.

Recently, a great deal of interest has been focused on the use of solid state nuclear track detectors in a large variety of applications in science and technology.The dependence of alpha particle track diameter on the hardness of a diallyl maleate-allyl diglycol carbonate (DAM-ADC) nuclear track detector is investigated. When etched under optimum conditions, a relationship between track diameter and hardness is determined which is found to be linear.In turn the sensitivity of a solid state nuclear track detector can be improved by increasing the hardness of the polymer. Hardness correction factor needs be added for the precise calculation of the stopping power which plays a role in the track registration . The physical and chemical characteristics of the detector have been investigated by various techniques including Raman scattering spectroscopy, X-ray diffraction, Vickers micro-hardness and dielectric constant measurements, also, The effect of gamma dose upon physical properties of DAM-ADC detector has been also studied.This work demonstrates the characteristics and factors affecting the registration efficiency of DAM-ADC nuclear track detecto

This edition is the latest in a series of books by this author that have appeared in the past ten years that seek to make sense of the form of The Standard Model. Previously The Standard Model was viewed as a hodgepodge of particles symmetries and features that worked experimentally but was only an approximation to a "true" fundamental theory. The overall purpose of this series of books was to show that the form of The Standard Model is based on certain fundamental principles that ultimately emanate from Logic, Asynchronous Logic in particular. Physical phenomena are asynchronous. The simplest form of Asynchronous Logic has a 4-valued logic that maps naturally to Dirac-like equations. Upon this bridge The Standard Model is constructed with parity violation, particle symmetries SU(3) SU(2) U(1) U(1), and a spin 1/2 fermion spectrum with four generations of four fermion species split into quarks and leptons. Two species of WIMPs are also derived. A new formulation of Logic is presented. A major application of the derived Standard Model, superluminal starships, is discussed. Tachyon quantum field theory is described in detail as is a new method of renormalization that renormalizes the Standard Model and Quantum Gravity. An alternative method for generating particle masses and mixing angles is presented that avoids the use of Higgs particle

Heavy ion reaction is a fast growing subject of nuclear physics. Heavy ions are the nuclei equal to or heavier than the alpha-particle. In this book, heavy ion reactions study within the dynamical cluster-decay model (DCM) and its simplified version -summed extended-Wong model of Gupta and collaborators, with deformation and orientations effects included and nuclear proximity potential derived from semi-classical extended Thomas Fermi model based on Skyrme energy density formalism, from different mass regions of Periodic Table are presented. The main aim of this work is to examine the fusion hindrance phenomenon via the modification of barrier in terms of, orientations of nuclei, the defining parameters of the Fermi density, or the Skyrme force parameters themselves. This book further advances the dynamics of heavy ion reaction. This work will be of interest to the nuclear physicists all over the globe.