The first model for the distribution of ions near the surface of a metal electrode was devised by Helmholtz in 1874. He envisaged two parallel sheets of charges of opposite sign located one on the metal surface and the other on the solution side, a few nanometers away, exactly as in the case of a parallel plate capacitor. The rigidity of such a model was allowed for by Gouy and Chapman inde pendently, by considering that ions in solution are subject to thermal motion so that their distribution from the metal surface turns out diffuse. Stern recognized that ions in solution do not behave as point charges as in the Gouy-Chapman treatment, and let the center of the ion charges reside at some distance from the metal surface while the distribution was still governed by the Gouy-Chapman view. Finally, in 1947, D. C. Grahame transferred the knowledge of the struc ture of electrolyte solutions into the model of a metal/solution interface, by en visaging different planes of closest approach to the electrode surface depending on whether an ion is solvated or interacts directly with the solid wall. Thus, the Gouy-Chapman-Stern-Grahame model of the so-called electrical double layer was born, a model that is still qualitatively accepted, although theoreti cians have introduced a number of new parameters of which people were not aware 50 years ago.

This volume contains the papers presented at the UNESCO Scientific Forum on Chemistry in the Service of Mankind - Electrochemistry in Research and Development, held in Paris, June 4-6, 1984. Electrochemistry is concerned with the way electricity produces chemical changes and in turn chemical changes result in the production of electricity. This interaction forms the basis for an enormous variety of processes ranging from heavy industry through batteries to biological phenomena. Although there are many established applications, modern research has led to a great expansion in the possibilities for using electrochemistry in exciting future developments. To encourage this progress, UNESCO has set up an Expert Committee on Electrochemistry and its Applications in the European and North American region, which has already held a number of meetings devoted to specific topics. To achieve a synthesis of the main directions of development and to demonstrate the importance of these for the needs of our modern society, the Expert Committee organized a Forum on Electrochemistry in Research and Development. The object of this was to assess the future trends in research and development and to establish a dialogue between experts in electrochemistry and their colleagues in the many other disciplines which can make use of electrochemistry. The Forum was also intended to present electrochemistry and its applications in a form accessible to non-specialists so that science policy-makers will be aware of the potentialities of this subject for the future needs of mankind.

This volume contains selected presentations of the IUTAM Symposium on Combustion in Supersonic Flows' held in Poitiers at the Ecole Nationale Superieure de Mecanique et d'Aerotechnique (ENSMA) from 2 to 6 October 1995. The presentations focus on four main topics related to combustion in supersonic streams and practical issues relevant to the development of new propulsion systems: fundamental studies of premixed and unpremixed combustion, fluid dynamics aspects of supersonic combustion, practical systems including Scramjet, Ramaccelerators and Pulsed Detonation Engines, and the application of detonation to propulsion. Important progress has been made in the understanding of local mechanisms which allow combustion to be stabilized in a supersonic flow; in particular, various mechanisms controlled by mixing, chemical kinetics, viscous heating and shock waves are now well identified. Despite the difficulty of developing experimental work on supersonic combustion, a good set of experimental data is now available, allowing validation of theoretical analysis and models. The main aspects of modelling of turbulent combustion in high speed flows were discussed, including the influence of turbulent fluctuations on the chemistry-controlled phase of combustion and the applicability of flamelet models to high speed flows. The full range of numerical approaches is covered including Direct Numerical Simulation, Large Eddy Simulation, k-epsilon and shock tracking methods. A considerable effort has been made to generalize these methods to the treatment of supersonic reactive flows and to develop new numerical methods taking into account the most recent theoretical work and a better understanding of the underlying physics."

Some time ago a group of present and former collaborators of Professor John O'M. Bock ris, following a suggestion by Professor J. D. Mackenzie (Los Angeles), conceived the idea of an International Symposium devoted to reviewing the active and developing aspects of the science of electrochemistry. From this beginning has sprung the "Electrochemistry Symposium-The Past Thirty and the Next Thirty Years," which took place at Imperial College, London, from April 3-6, 1975. The plan for this symposium is unusual, since it features pairs of invited addresses, one to summarize the "state of the art" and the other to suggest directions for future re search in particular aspects of electrochemistry. This volume of proceedings gives these papers in their fmal, considered, and fully referenced form, arranged in the sequence of their delivery at the symposium. Also in cluded are introductory addresses given by Professor Ubbelohde, Professor Frumkin, Dr. Egan, and Dr. Inman. Both aspects of nearly every topic, plus the discussions, are integrated in a Report or Summary. A synopsis of the matters raised at the symposium and prepared by Professor John O'M. Bockris closes this volume. The cooperation of Plenum Press, New York, is gratefully acknowledged.

The intention of this monograph has been to assimilate key practical and theoretical aspects of those spectroelectrochemical techniques likely to become routine aids to electrochemical research and analysis. Many new methods for interphasial studies have been and are being developed. Accordingly, this book is restricted in scope primarily to in situ methods for studying metal! electrolyte or semiconductor! electrolyte systems; moreover, it is far from inclusive of the spectroelectrochemical techniques that have been devised. However, it is hoped that the practical descriptions provided are sufficiently explicit to encourage and enable the newcomer to establish the experimental facilities needed for a particular problem. The chapters in this text have been written by international authorities in their particular specialties. Each chapter is broadly organized to review the origins and historical background of the field, to provide sufficiently detailed theory for graduate student comprehension, to describe the practical design and experimental methodology, and to detail some representative application examples. Since publication of Volume 9 of the Advances in Electrochemistry and Electrochemical Engineering series (1973), a volume devoted specifically to spectroelectrochemistry, there has been unabated growth of these fields. A number of international symposia-such as those held at Snowmass, Colorado, in 1978, the proceedings of which were published by North-Holland (1980); at Logan, Utah in 1982, published by Elsevier (1983); or at the Fritz Haber Institute in 1986-have served as forums for the discussion of nontraditional methods to study interphases and as means for the dissemination of a diversity of specialist research papers.

The origin of this book lies in a time before one of the authors (J. O'M. B.) left the University of Pennsylvania bound for the Flinders University. His collaboration with Dennis Matthews at the University of Pennsylvania had contributed a singular experimental datum to the quantum theory of elec trode processes: the variation of the separation factor with potential, which could only be interpreted in terms of a quantum theory of electrode kinetics. The authors came together as a result of grad~ate work of one of them (S. U. M. K.) on the quantum mechanics and photo aspects of elec trode processes, and this book was written during a postdoctoral fellowship held by him at the Flinders University. Having stated the book's origin, it is worthwhile stating the rational izations the authors had for writing it. Historically, quantization in elec trochemistry began very early (1931) in the applications of the quantum theory to chemistry. (See the historical table on pages xviii-xix.) There was thereafter a cessation of work on the quantum theory in electrochemistry until a continuum dielectric viewpoint, based on Born's equation for solvation energy, began to be developed in the 1950s and snowballed during the 1960s.

Electrified interfaces span from metaVsemiconductor and metaVelectrolyte interfaces to disperse systems and biological membranes, and are notably important in so many physical, chemical and biological systems that their study has been tackled by researchers with different scientific backgrounds using different methodological approaches. The various electrified interfaces have several common features. The equilibrium distribution of positive and negative ions in an electrolytic solution is governed by the same Poisson-Boltzmann equation independent of whether the solution comes into contact with a metal, a colloidal particle or a biomembrane, and the same is true for the equilibrium distribution of free electrons and holes of a semiconductor in contact with a different conducting phase. Evaluation of electric potential differences across biomembranes is based on the same identity of electrochemical potentials which holds for a glass electrode and which yields the Nernst equation when applied to a metal/solution interface. The theory of thermally activated electron tunneling, which was developed by Marcus, Levich, Dogonadze and others to account for electron transfer across metaVelectrolyte interfaces, is also applied to light induced charge separation and proton translocation reactions across intercellular membranes. From an experimental viewpoint, the same electrochemical and in situ spectroscopic techniques can equally well be employed for the study of apparently quite different electrified interfaces.

This book originated out of the papers presented at the special symposium, "Electrochemistry in Transition-From the 20th to the 21st Century," scheduled by the Division of Colloid and Surface Science during the American Chemical Society meeting in Toronto. The symposium was in honor of Professor J. O'M. Bockris, who received the ACS award on "The Chemistry of Contemporary Technological Problems" (sponsored by Mobay Corporation) during this meeting and who also reached his 65th birthday in the same year. The symposium was of a multidisciplinary nature and encompassed the fields of theoretical and experimental elec trochemistry, surface science, spectroscopy, and electrochemical technology. The symposium also had an international flavor in that the participants represented several countries Australia, Belgium, Canada, Chile, England, Japan, Korea, the Netherlands, Poland, Switzer land, Venezuela, Yugoslavia, and the United States. The symposium was graciously sponsored by the ACS (Petroleum Research Fund and Division of Colloid and Surface Science), Alcan International, Dow Chemical Company, EG&G, Electrolyzer Corporation, Exxon, General Electric Company, IBM, Institute of Gas Technology, International Association of Hydrogen Energy, Johnson Matthey, Inc., Kerr-McGee Corporation, Medtronics, and Texas A&M University (Center for Electrochemical Systems and Hydrogen Research and the Hampton Robinson Fund). The "theme" of the papers presented at the symposium covered not only significant contributions made to electrochemistry in the twentieth century, but also "New Horizons in Electrochemistry" for the twenty-first century. Thus, the scientists who presented papers were invited to contribute chapters to this book, having the same titles as the symposium."

The necessity for a better understanding of the basic processes that determine the operation of fuel cells became evident during the devel opment of practical units in the last three decades. The search for efficient electrocatalysts in low-temperature fuel cells intensified the general study of the nature and the role of the electrode material. Re search on the complex mechanisms of the anodic oxidation of different fuels and of the reduction of molecular oxygen on solid electrodes was stimulated, and the strong influence of adsorbed species on the electrode reaction in question was investigated. Suitable electrolytes had to be found for the high-temperature fuel cells. The use of electrodes with large internal surface lead to the development of models of porous electrode. structures and to the mathematical analysis of the operation of these models under certain conditions. While the chapters I to III introduce the reader to the general field offuel cells, the progress made in the understanding of the basic problems in the electrochemistry of fuel cells since the end of the second world war is reviewed in chapters IV to XVI of this monograph. In contrast, the technological aspects necessary for the development of practical units are not covered here. The open literature published as books or as papers in scientific journals has been considered up to the time of the writing of the final draft of the specific chapter, at least till the end of 1967."

It is now time for a comprehensive treatise to look at the whole field of electrochemistry. The present treatise was conceived in 1974, and the earliest invitations to authors for contributions were made in 1975. The completion of the early volumes has been delayed by various factors. There has been no attempt to make each article emphasize the most recent situation at the expense of an overall statement of the modern view. This treatise is not a collection of articles from Recent Advances in Electrochemistry or Modern Aspects of Electrochemistry. It is an attempt at making a mature statement about the present position in the vast area of what is best looked at as a new interdisciplinary field. Texas A & M University J. O'M. Bockris University of Ottawa B. E. Conway Case Western Reserve University Ernest Yeager Texas A & M University Ralph E. White Preface to Volume 8 Experimental methods in electrochemistry are becoming more diverse. This volume describes many of the new techniques that are being used as well as some of the well-established techniques. It begins with two chapters (1 and 2) on electronic instrumentation and methods for utilization of microcomputers for experimental data acquisition and reduction. Next, two chapters (3 and 4) on classical methods of electrochemical analysis are presented: ion selective electrodes and polarography.

All significant studies agree that aqueous corrosion continues to cost nations dearly in almost every area of technological endeavour. Over the past ten years, microcomputers have facilitated an explosion in the power of modelling as a technique in science and engineering. In corrosion they have enabled better understanding of polarization curves, they have transformed the scope of electrochemical impedance measurements and they have placed a large range of electrochemistry at the fingertips of the corrosion scientist. This book focuses on the models, rather than the computing, which have been made possible during the past decade. Aimed at all those with an interest in corrosion and its control, the book draws together the range of new modelling strands, suggests new avenues of approach and generates further momentum for improvements to corrosion management, whether by increased understanding of atomistic processes or by control of large plant.

Number 25 of this acclaimed series breaks new ground with articles on charge transfer across liquid-liquid interfaces, electrochemical techniques to study hydrogen ingress in metals, and electrical breakdown of liquids. Also included are articles on the measurement of corrosion and ellipsometry, bringing these older subjects up to date.

The importance of microelectrodes is widely recognised and interest in their application in diverse areas of research has been increasing over the past ten years. In fact, several meetings organized by the International Society of Electrochemistry, The American Chemical Society and The U. S. Electrochemical Society have analysed various aspects of their theory and applications. For this reason it seemed that the time had arrived when scientists from around the world, actively concerned with research in the area of microelectrodes, should meet, exchange ideas and assess the direction of future developments. Furthermore, it seemed appropriate that this meeting should be held as a NATO Advanced Study Institute, so that students and young scientists with research interests in microelectrodes would have the opportunity to interact with experts in the field, establish future collaboration and, hopefully, catalyse new developments in the area. The meeting was held in Alvor, Portugal, in May 1990. This book compiles the lectures delivered in the Institute. It reviews the most important aspects of microelectrodes and points out directions for future research in this field. Several contributions discuss recent developments in theoretical aspects such as the properties of various geometries and computational procedures for solving the equations describing the coupling of mass transport to microelectrodes with heterogeneous electron tranfer and homogeneous chemistry. The materials and methods available for microelectrodes manufacture are presented in some detail. Both steady state and transient techniques are covered and the interaction of theory with experiment is discussed.

Soot Formation in Combustion represents an up-to-date overview. The contributions trace back to the 1991 Heidelberg symposium entitled "Mechanism and Models of Soot Formation" and have all been reedited by Prof. Bockhorn in close contact with the original authors. The book gives an easy introduction to the field for newcomers, and provides detailed treatments for the specialists. The following list of contents illustrates the topics under review:

This is a book about things in magnetism that interest me. I think that these are important things which will interest a number of other chemists. The restriction is important, because it is difficult to write well about those things which are less familiar to an author. In general, the chemistry and physics of coordination compounds are what this book is about. Magnetochemistry is the study of the ground states of metal ions. When the ions are not interacting, then the study of single-ion phenomena is called paramagnetism. When the metal ions interact, then we are concerned with collective phenomena such as occur in long-range ordering. Several years ago, Hans van Duyneveldt and I published a book that explored these subjects in detail. Since that time, the field has grown tremendously, and there has been a need to bring the book up to date. Furthermore, I have felt that it would be useful to include more subsidiary material to make the work more useful as a textbook. This book is the result of those feelings of mine.

The author provides a unified account of the electrochemical material science of metal chalcogenide (MCh) compounds and alloys with regard to their synthesis, processing and applications.

Starting with the chemical fundamentals of the chalcogens and their major compounds, the initial part of the book includes a systematic description of the MCh solids on the basis of the Periodic Table in terms of their structures and key properties. This is followed by a general discussion on the electrochemistry of chalcogen species, and the principles underlying the electrochemical formation of inorganic compounds/alloys. The core of the book offers an insight into available experimental results and inferences regarding the electrochemical preparation and microstructural control of conventional and novel MCh structures. It also aims to survey their photoelectrochemistry, both from a material-oriented point of view and as connected to specific processes such as photocatalysis and solar energy conversion.

Finally, the book illustrates the relevance of MCh materials to various applications of electrochemical interest such as (electro)catalysis in fuel cells, energy storage with intercalation electrodes, and ion sensing.

Complex plasmas differ from traditional plasmas in many ways: these are low-temperature high pressure systems containing nanometer to micrometer size particles which may be highly charged and strongly interacting. The particles may be chemically reacting or be in contact with solid surfaces, and the electrons may show quantum behaviour. These interesting properties have led to many applications of complex plasmas in technology, medicine and science. Yet complex plasmas are extremely complicated, both experimentally and theoretically, and require a variety of new approaches which go beyond standard plasma physics courses. This book fills this gap presenting an introduction to theory, experiment and computer simulation in this field. Based on tutorial lectures at a very successful recent Summer Institute, the presentation is ideally suited for graduate students, plasma physicists and experienced undergraduates.

The physicist Kamerlingh Onnes, who was the first to liquify helium (1908), had written on the walls of his laboratory in Leiden: "From measur ing to knowing." As true as this is at very low temperatures, it is just as applicable at the high temperatures of molten salts. Only on the basis of exact measurements by a plethora of experimental methods can any real understanding be reached of both classes of liquids. In both temperature ranges experimental difficulties are much greater than those encountered around ambient temperature. Molten salts often present a formidable challenge to the experimen talist, for example, because of corrosion and other materials problems. Applications of molten salts were for a long time based on empirical knowledge alone. This was true for the first application of molten salts in 1807, when Davy obtained sodium and potassium by electrolysis of the molten hydroxides. For 100 years the winning of aluminum has been based on the very nearly simultaneous invention by Hall and Heroult (1886) of the electrolysis of molten cryolite. The process, though essentially unchanged, has since been perfected owing to an improvement in our understanding of what actually happens, based on difficult measurements ofthe many variables. However, even now there are gaps in our knowledge."

-Encapsulation by Miniemulsion Polymerization By K. Landfester and C. K. Weiss -Enzyme-Encapsulated Layer-by-Layer Assemblies: Current Status and Challenges Toward Ultimate Nanodevices By K. Ariga, Q. Ji, and J. P. Hill -Non-LBL Assembly and Encapsulation Uses 1 of Nanoparticle-Shelled Hollow Spheres 2 By G.C. Kini, S. L. Biswal, and M. S. Wong -Polymersomes: A Synthetic Biological Approach to Encapsulation and Delivery By M. Massignani, H. Lomas, and G. Battaglia -Reaction Vessels Assembled by the Sequential Adsorption of Polymers By A.D. Price, A.P.R. Johnston, G.K. Such, and F. Caruso

Silicon-on-Insulator Technology: Materials to VLSI, Third Edition, retraces the evolution of SOI materials, devices and circuits over a period of roughly twenty years. Twenty years of progress, research and development during which SOI material fabrication techniques have been born and abandoned, devices have been invented and forgotten, but, most importantly, twenty years during which SOI Technology has little by little proven it could outperform bulk silicon in every possible way. The turn of the century turned out to be a milestone for the semiconductor industry, as high-quality SOI wafers suddenly became available in large quantities. From then on, it took only a few years to witness the use of SOI technology in a wealth of applications ranging from audio amplifiers and wristwatches to 64-bit microprocessors. This book presents a complete and state-of-the-art review of SOI materials, devices and circuits. SOI fabrication and characterization techniques, SOI CMOS processing, and the physics of the SOI MOSFET receive an in-depth analysis.

Bioenergetics, the topic of volume 5 of this Series, is concerned with the energetics, the kinetics, and the mechanisms of energy conversion in biological systems. This phenomenon can be investigated on diffe rent levels of complexity. On a global level the role of biological pro cesses for the steady state of our enviroment is considered. At the physiological level, the relation between energy input and the physiolo gical state of an organism is of interest, while at the cellular level the biochemical pathways for degradation and synthesis of all relevant substrates is investigated. At present the majority of bioenergetic stu dies pertain to the molecular level. The processes in a cell are cataly zed by a large number of proteins called enzymes. The enzymes in volved in energy transduction can be considered as molecular ma chines which transform energy from one form into another, or transfer energy from one process to another. Living systems operate far from equilibrium and are open in the ther modynamic sense, i. e. they exchange energy and matter with the sur roundings. Chapter 1 presents the principles of non equilibrium thermo dynamics applied to biological systems. About 0. 05% of the energy from the sunlight which reaches the surface of the earth is used by plants and algae as well as some bacteria to synthesize organic com pounds, and thus supplies all organisms with the energy necessary for life."

This book has been planned and written by Dr. Hine with his knowledge and experience in electrochemical science and engineering for over thirty years since he joined with me at Kyoto University in 1948. This book is unique and is useful for engineers as well as scientists who are going to work in any interdisciplinary field connected with elec trochemistry. Science is sure to clarify the truth of nature as well as bring prosperity and an improvement to the welfare of human beings. The origin of the word "science" is the same as of "conscience," which means the truth of our heart. When we consider a scientific and technological subject, first we classify it into the components and/or factors involved, and then we clarify them individually. Second, we combine them to grasp the whole meaning and feature of the subject under discussion. Computers may help us greatly, but how to establish the software that will be most desirable for our purposes is of great importance. We need to make these efforts ourselves, and not decorate with borrowed plumes. With this concept in mind, this book is attractive because the author describes the basic science in electrochemistry and practice, and discusses the electrochemical engineering applications as a combination of science and technology."

The holding of an Advanced Study Institute on the topic of "Solid State Batteries" at this time represented a logical progression in a series of NATO-sponsored events. Summer Schools at Belgerati, Italy in 1972 and Ajaccio, Corsica in 1975 on the topic of "Solid -State IOllics" dealt with fundamental aspects of solid-state electro chemistry and materials science. The application of specific solid ionic conductors played a significant role in the Science Committee Institute on "Materials for Advanced Batteries" held at Aussois, France in 1979. Interest in these and related fields has grown substantially over this period, and is sustained today. Research and development programmes exist within universities, governmental research laboratories and industry, worldwide and a series of international conferences and collaborations have been set up. Advanced batteries, both secondary and primary, have a potentially important role o play in the development of many areas of tech nology in the late 20th century and beyond. Applications include stationary storage, vehicle traction and remote power sources, as well as industrial and domestic cordless products and consumer and military electronics. The concept of an all-so lid-state battery is not new but, until recently, their performance has precluded their use in other than specialist low power, primary, applications. Recent materials' developments, however, make the solid-state battery a real possibility in all of the application sectors mentioned above. Further, such cells offer many attractive features over alternative present-day and advanced systems."

This volume presents plenary lectures and invited papers that Were delivered during the Fourth Australian Conference on Electro chemistry held at The Flinders University of South Australia, 16-20th February 1976. EZeat~oahemi8try fo~ a Futu~e Soaiety was selected as the Conference theme since the organising committee were mindful of the rapid change in technological perspective which the world now faces. We no longer have a prospect of uncontrolled spontaneous expansion and change as the result of technological enterprise. Rather, we face the task of attempting to reach a state of very restricted growth. In the next few decades special accent must be placed on minimizing pollution and maximizing the efficient utilization of all available energy sources. With this in mind, the Conference organisers considered that a conventional electrochemistry symposium, with its divisions into the various academic aspects, would be less relevant than a meeting devoted to aspects of electrochemistry which may underlie parts of the new and necessary technology for the future state of affairs. What has actually been achieved by the Conference organisers is a balance between the ideals expressed and the resulting response from electrochemists. This response has a bias which reflects the dominance of certain resources, e.g. metallic minerals, within Australia. Consequently, the papers included in T~ends in EZeat~o ahemist~ cover subjects which are of both global and local concern.