The 41st Annual Conference on Applications of X-Ray Analysis was held August 3-7, 1992, at the Sheraton Colorado Springs Hotel, Colorado Springs, Colorado. The Conference is recognized to be a major event in the x-ray analysis field, bringing together scientists and engineers from around the world to discuss the state of the art in x-ray applications as well as indications for further developments. In recent years, one of the most exciting and important developments in the x-ray field has been the applications of grazing-incidence x-rays for surface and thin-film analysis. To introduce the conference attendees to these "leading-edge" developments, the topic for the Plenary Session was "Grazing-Incidence X Ray Characterization of Materials. " The Conference had the privilege of inviting leading experts in the field of x-ray thin film analysis to deliver lectures at the Plenary Session. Dr. D. K. Bowen, University of Warwick, U. K., opened the session with a lecture on "Grazing Incidence X-Ray Scattering from Thin Films. " He reviewed and compared grazing incidence diffraction, fluorescence and reflectivity techniques. Results of experimental and theoretical analysis were also discussed. Dr. B. Lenge1er, Forchungszentrum Ju1ich, Germany, followed with a lecture on "Grazing Incidence Diffuse X-Ray Scattering from Thin Films. " He concentrated on the use of newly developed "off-specular" reflectivity techniques for the determination of vertical roughness, lateral correlation length and contour exponent on surfaces."

Due to the worldwide epidemic of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), the past ten years have witnessed a flurry of activity in the chemotherapy of viral diseases. Unprecedented scientific efforts have been made by scientists and clinicians to combat infections of human immunodeficiency virus (HIY), the causative agent. Looking back over the past ten years, we have made remarkable progress toward the treatment of the viral disease: isolation of HIV only two years after the identification of the disease, plus major strides in the areas of the molecular biology and virology of the retrovirus, etc. More remarkably, the discovery of the chemotherapeutic agent AZT (Retrovir) was made within two years after the isolation and identification of the virus, followed by unprecedented drug development efforts to culminate in the FDA approval of AZT in twenty-three months, which was a record-breaking time for approval of any drug for a major disease. The last six to seven years have particularly been an exciting and productive period for nucleoside chemists. Since the activity of AZI' was established in 1985, nucleoside chemists have had golden opportunities to discover additional anti-HIV nucleosipes, which are hoped to be less toxic and more effective than AZT, and the opportunity continues. As we all are aware, AZT possesses extremely potent anti-HIY activity, and no other nucleoside or non nucleoside has surpassed the potency of AZT in vitro."

This is an extended version of lectures that were held at the summer workshop Atmosphiirische Umweltforschung im Spannungsfeld zwischen Technik und Natur (At mospheric Environmental Research between Technology and Nature) at the Techni 16, 1996. We were very happy to have Paul J. Crutzen, cal University in Cottbus on July winner of the Nobel Prize for chemistry in 1995, presenting the key lecture on glo bally changing chemistry in the atmosphere. Over the last decades, atmospheric chem istry has been established step by step, not just as an applied discipline of chemistry, but also as a key discipline for our understanding of air pollution, biogeochemical cycling, and climactic processes as well. In fact, the new definition of meteorology as the science of physics and chemistry of the atmosphere expresses this development very well. The chemistry of the atmosphere is strongly influenced by anthropogenic emissions, even on a global scale. As a result of emissions and chemical reactions, the chemical composition of the atmosphere influences the ecosystems directly via depo sition of trace substances, and indirectly by changing the physical climate. Therefore, in this book we combined state-of-the-art lectures describing the physical and chemi cal status of the atmosphere and selected issues representing the interface between atmosphere, technology and nature. Oxidising capacity, heterogeneous processes and acidity still remain as key issues in atmospheric chemistry, even in regions where efficient air control measures have been adopted resulting in reduction of primary atmospheric pollutants."

In the medical, food, and environmental fields there is a continuous demand for inexpensive and sensitive analytical devices that are reliable, rapid, capable of high-throughput screening, and have low cost per test unit. Small and portable biosensor devices are designed to fulfill most of these requirements, and can be used in laboratory and on-site field testing. This volume discusses major issues in optical, acoustic and electrochemical-based biosensors, biochips, sensing recognition elements, and biosensors for medical and environmental applications. The papers presented at the conference represent basic and applied research studies in the fields of diagnostic assays and biosensor development. Novel technologies, such as arrays of sensors using high-density fiber optics to sense labeled or unlabeled oligonucleotides, and patterned arrays of recognition elements, demonstrated the capability of biosensors to analyze multiple analytes.

When presented with a new compound or material, the inorganic chemist will usually have several questions in mind about its composition and structure. Although a simple elemental analysis may answer many questions about its composition, the chemist will still have questions about its structure, and, ifthe material contains a metal atom, he will often want to know its oxidation state, coordination number and geometry. Further, at an increasingly frequent rate, the chemist may need details of the spin state, magnetic and perhaps dynamic properties of the material. If the investigator is fortunate, the material or compound may contain an ele ment such as iron, tin, antimony, iodine, gold, or one of several of the rare earth metals which are amenable to study by the Mossbauer effect. Often the Mossbauer effect can, sometimes with quite simple experiments, provide the answers to all of these questions. The goal of this book is to illustrate the effectiveness of the Mossbauer effect in providing the answers to the many questions that arise in char acterizing new materials and, indeed, in studying known materials in more detail. Several chapters introduce the effect to the novice and provide details about the various hyperfine interactions that are the "bread and butter" of the Mossbauer spectroscopist. Three chapters deal specifically with the experimental aspects of the technique and the increasing impor tance of sophisticated computer analysis of the resulting data."

This volume contains the proceedings of the NATO-Advanced Research Workshop (ARW) "Manipulation of atoms under high fields and temperatures: Applications," sponsored by the NATO Scientific Affairs Division, Special Programme on Nanoscale Science. This ARW took place in Summer '92, in the pleasant surroundings of the Hotel des Thermes at Charbonnieres les Bains -Lyon, France. Gathering some fifty experts from different fields, the ARW provided an opportunity to review the basic principles and to highlight the progress made during the last few years on the nanosources and the interactions between atomic-scale probes and samples. The motivation is to use the novel properties attached to the atomic dimensions to develop nanoscale technologies. The perception of the atomic-scale world has greatly changed since the discovery and development, in the early 80's, of Scanning Tunneling Microscopy (STM) by Binnig and Rohrer. Beyond the observation of individual atoms, which is now routine, the concept of playing with atoms has become commonplace. This has lead to the fashioning of tools at the atomic scale, to the deposition, the displacement and the creation of atomic structures and also to the knowledge of interactions and contacts between atoms. Nanotips ending with a single atom are sources of ultra-fine charged beams. They can be unique tools for high resolution observations, for micro fabrications by micro-machining and deposition at a scale not previously attainable, with a working distance less stringent than with STM devices."

The application of fluorescence in drug discovery, high-throughout screenings in genomics and proteomics is and will be evidently successful. The increased use of fluorescence techniques is greatly enhanced by the improved instrumentation pioneered by inventive scientists and now made available commercially by several high-tech companies. Moreover, the design and development of many new molecular probes with higher selectivity for specific microenvironmental properties has stimulated many new researchers to employ fluorescence techniques for solving their problems. Probably the most significant breakthrough in fluorescence is its use in detection of single molecules and even of their real-time dynamics. Also, probing inside living cells has become a hot topic in the life sciences. This topic book reflects the updates of scientific progress presented by frontline researchers.

Integrating both theoretical and applied aspects of electrochemistry, this acclaimed monograph series presents a review of the latest advances in the field. The current volume includes chapters on the mechanism of nerve excitation from an electrochemical standpoint, the electronic factor in the kinetics of charge-transfer reaction, and five other subjects.

Applications: - Applications of Microbial Cell Sensors, by Mifumi Shimomura-Shimizu and Isao Karube - Whole-Cell Bioreporters for the Detection of Bioavailable Metals, by Anu Hynninen and Marko Virta - Bacteriophage-Based Pathogen Detection, by Steven Ripp - Cell-Based Genotoxicity Testing, by Georg Reifferscheid and Sebastian Buchinger - Cytotoxicity and Genotoxicity Reporter Systems Based on the Use of Mammalian Cells, by Christa Baumstark-Khan, Christine E. Hellweg, and Gunther Reitz - Live Cell Optical Sensing for High Throughput Applications, by Ye Fang - Cyanobacterial Bioreporters as Sensors of Nutrient Availability, by George S. Bullerjahn, Ramakrishna Boyanapalli, Mark J. Rozmarynowycz, and R. Michael L. McKay - Application of Microbial Bioreporters in Environmental Microbiology and Bioremediation, by E. E. Diplock , H. A. Alhadrami , and G. I. Paton

Since the first edition of this book was published early in 1970, three major developments have occurred in the field of x-ray spectrochemical analysis. First, wavelength-dispersive spectrometry, in 1970 already securely established among instrumental analytical methods, has matured. Highly sophisticated, miniaturized, modular, solid-state circuitry has replaced elec tron-tube circuitry in the readout system. Computers are now widely used to program and control fully automated spectrometers and to store, process, and compute analytical concentrations directly and immediately from ac cumulated count data. Matrix effects have largely yielded to mathematical treatment. The problems associated with the ultralong-wavelength region have been largely surmounted. Indirect (association) methods have extended the applicability of x-ray spectrometry to the entire periodic table and even to certain classes of compounds. Modern commercial, computerized, auto matic, simultaneous x-ray spectrometers can index up to 60 specimens in turn into the measurement position and for each collect count data for up to 30 elements and read out the analytical results in 1--4 min-all corrected for absorption-enhancement and particle-size or surface-texture effects and wholly unattended. Sample preparation has long been the time-limiting step in x-ray spectrochemical analysis. Second, energy-dispersive spectrometry, in 1970 only beginning to assume its place among instrumental analytical methods, has undergone phenomenal development and application and, some believe, may supplant wavelength spectrometry for most applications in the foreseeable future."

Micro-TAS '98 is the third of a series of symposia initiated by MBSA (University of Twente) in 1994, on the subject of miniaturizing, and integrating within a monolithic structure, the chemical, biochemical and biological procedures commonly used for analysis and synthesis. The primary tool used to develop micro-total analysis systems (mu- TAS) has been micro-photolithographic patterning and micromachining. These powerful tools of Micro System Technology (MST or MEMS) have been applied in highly imaginative ways to develop microchip chemical arrays, fully integrated pump and fluid manifolds, and electrokinetically driven micro-channel systems to be used for genetic analysis, clinical diagnostics and environmental monitoring, and to integrate reactions as diverse as the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and the large volume, partial oxidation of ammonia. This text illustrates the rapid expansion of the field, the extensive industrial involvement, the increasing number of participating researchers, the expanding range of concepts and applications that utilize MST and microfluidic devices, and new MST-compatible plastic micro-machining to meet the needs of the life science community. This volume contains the proceedings of the Third International Symposium on Micro-Total Analysis Systems, mu-TAS '98, held on October 13-16 in Banff, Alberta, Canada. State-of-the-art invited and contributed papers presented by the world's leading mu- TAS research groups provide a highly informative picture of the growth since 1994 and of the promising future of this exciting and rapidly growing field.

This book draws together leading workers in the fields of mass spectrometry and gas phase ion chemistry, providing a forum for the exchange of ideas and information. It contains 14 lecture summaries and accounts of seven workshops with contributions from Europe and North America.

Following the long-standing tradition of the Seeheim-Workshops on Mossbauer Spectroscopy, 1978, 1983, 1988, 1994 always held in the same traditional place of the Lufthansa Training Center in Seeheim/Germany, the 5th workshop took place in 2002. The main topics covered are:
-new technical developments such as the techniques of Nuclear Inelastic Scattering (NIS) and Nuclear Forward Scattering (NFS) of Synchrotron Radiation and their applications in studying lattice dynamics, magnetism and surface phenomena;
-investigations of molecular structural and bonding properties in biomolecules and coordination compounds;
-problems related to geochemistry and earth sciences;
-applications of Mossbauer spectroscopy in molecular magnetism and photomagnetism.
The book will serve as a source of great actuality to physicists, chemists and geoscientists employing the Mossbauer effect and other hyperfine interaction techniques to explore solid state properties of bulk materials as well as surface phenomena."

In the broad field of supramolecular chemistry, the design and hence the use of chemosensors for ion and molecule recognition have developed at an extroardinary rate. This imaginative and creative area which involves the interface of different disciplines, e.g. organic and inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, biology, medicine, environmental science, is not only fundamental in nature. It is also clear that progress is most rewarding for several new sensor applications deriving from the specific signal delivered by the analyte-probe interaction. Indeed, if calcium sensing in real time for biological purposes is actually possible, owing to the emergence of efficient fluorescent receptors, other elements can also be specifically detected, identified and finally titrated using tailored chemosensors. Pollutants such as heavy metals or radionuclides are among the main targets since their detection and removal could be envisioned at very low concentrations with, in addition, sensors displaying specific and strong complexing abilities. Besides, various species of biological interest (or others, the list is large) including sugars and other micellaneous molecules such as oxygen and carbon dioxide can be actually probed with optodes and similar devices. The present volume in which the key lectures of the workshop are collected gives a survey of the main developments in the field. The success of the workshop mainly came from the high quality of the lectures, the invited short talks, the two posters sessions and the many very lively discussions which without doubt will produce positive outcomes.

NMR is better suited than any other experimental technique for the characterization of supramolecular systems in solution. The presentations included here can be broadly divided into three classes. The first class illustrates the state of the art in the design of supramolecular systems and includes examples of different classes of supramolecular complexes: catenanes, rotaxanes, hydrogen-bonded rosettes, tubes, capsules, dendrimers, and metal-containing hosts. The second class comprises contributions to NMR methods that can be applied to address the main structural problems that arise in supramolecular chemistry. The third class includes biological supramolecular systems studied by state-of-the-art NMR techniques.

Spectroscopy of Defects in Organic Crystals presents a masterly summary of the widespread and voluminous literature on the subject, presenting theoretical and experimental investigations of electron and vibronic optical spectra of organic crystals. Electronic states of defects combine to form crystal near-to-band and band levels. These are discrete states in the vicinity of exciton bands, surface and dislocational excitons, etc. Some studies have expressed dissimilar or even conflicting opinions about the nature of observed phenomena. In the choice of the material, preference has been given to phenomena which have received a theoretical interpretation. Some attention is paid to observations which are not completely understood and also to effects predicted but not yet confirmed. The monograph will be useful for scientists as well as undergraduate and postgraduate students of solid state physics.

Interest in the occurrence and behaviour of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) is increasing due to their adverse effects on the environment and human health. It is essential that information is made available on the various aspects of research on VOCs to enable better understanding and control of the various environmental and human health threats. The information in this book will be used to improve communication and understanding of the various approaches. In particular the potential and limitations of the described analytical methods will be essential in defining environmental studies and interpreting the results.

The 41st Annual Conference on Applications of X-Ray Analysis was held August 2-6, 1993, at the Sheraton Denver Technical Center Hotel, Denver, Colorado. From its modest beginnings in the early 1950's, the Denver X-Ray Conference has grown to become a major venue in the national scientific calendar, with an ever-growing overseas participation. The 1993 Conference was the latest of these annual gatherings of x-ray analysts, who come together to discuss topics of current interest in diffraction and fluorescence. As the size and flavor of the Conference has changed over the years, so too have the methods and techniques of x-ray materials analysis matured. Science is advanced by the creativity of a few and the mistakes of many. It is important, therefore, that from time to time we sit back and reflect on how we got where we are, and where we are likely to go next. There has been no greater impact on the field than the introduction of the digital computer, and the Plenary Session of the 1993 Conference, "Impact of the PC in X-Ray Analysis," was designed to reflect on the role of the personal computer in the metamorphosis of x-ray instrumentation and techniques. Since the personal computer is a creation of non-x-ray specialists, we, as a group, have simply attached ourselves to the coat-tails of experts and developers in the PC field and taken advantage of new computer systems as and when they were developed.

The Sixth International Conference on Miniaturized Chemical and Biochemical Analysis Systems, known as IlTAS2002, will be fully dedicated to the latest scientific and technological developments in the field of miniaturized devices and systems for realizing not only chemical and biochemical analysis but also synthesis. The first IlTAS meeting was held in Enschede in 1994 with approximately 160 participants, bringing together the scientists with background in analytical and biochemistry with those with Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) in one workshop. We are grateful to Piet Bergveld and Albert van den Berg of MESA Research Institute of the University of Twente for their great efforts to arrange this exciting first meeting. The policy of the meeting was succeeded by late Prof. Dr. Michael Widmer in the second meeting, IlTAS'96 held in Basel with 275 participants. The first two meetings were held as informal workshops. From the third workshop, IlTAS'98 (420 participants) held in Banff, the workshop had become a worldwide conference. Participants continued to increase in IlTAS2000 (about 500 participants) held in Enschede and IlTAS2001 (about 700 participants) held in Monterey. The number of submitted papers also dramatically increased in this period from 130 in 1998, 230 in 2000 to nearly 400 in 2001. From 2001, IlTAS became an annual symposium. The steering committee meeting held in Monterey, confirmed the policy of former IlTAS that quality rather than quantity would be the key-point and that the parallel-session format throughout the 3.

The First International Symposium on the Interface between Analytical Chemistry and Microbiology: Applications of Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry was held June 1987 at the University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, U.S.A. The purpose of the "Interface" meeting was to forge connections between analytical chemists and microbiologists that are using chromatography and mass spectrometry to solve common problems. The goals were admirably fulfilled. Nearly a hundred participants from seven European countries, Japan, and the United States participated in hearing twenty-three plenary talks and thirty-six submitted papers and posters. The papers and discussions displayed the breadth and depth of current research applications and revealed future directions. This book "Analytical Microbiology Methods: Chromatography and Mass Spectrometry" is loosely based on some of the presentations and discussions at the meeting. Each chapter describes specific methodology and applications in the context of the relevant scientific background. The present book continues the theme of an earlier book, "Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Applications in Microbiology", edited by G. Odham, L. Larsson, and P-A. Mardh, published by Plenum Press in 1984.

Fluorescence reporter is the key element of any sensing or imaging technology. Its optimal choice and implementation is very important for increasing the sensitivity, precision, multiplexing power, and also the spectral, temporal, and spatial reso- tion in different methods of research and practical analysis. Therefore, design of ?uorescence reporters with advanced properties is one of the most important problems. In this volume, top experts in this ?eld provide advanced knowledge on the design and properties of ?uorescent dyes. Organic dyes were the ?rst ?uorescent materials used for analytical purposes, and we observe that they retain their leading positions against strong competition of new materials - conjugated polymers, semiconductor nanocrystals, and metal chelating complexes. Recently, molecular and cellular biology got a valuable tool of organic ?uorophores synt- sized by cell machinery and incorporated into green ?uorescent protein and its analogs. Demands of various ?uorescence techniques operating in spectral, anisotropy, and time domains require focused design of ?uorescence reporters well adapted to these techniques. Near-IR spectral range becomes more and more attractive for various applications, and new dyes emitting in this range are strongly requested. Two-photonic ?uorescence has become one of the major tools in bioimaging, and ?uorescence reporters well adapted to this technique are in urgent need. These problems cannot be solved without the knowledge of fundamental principles of dye design and of physical phenomena behind their ?uorescence response.

There were two reasons that induced me to plan and to organize this book, the first was the lack of a text entirely devoted to the subject of gas sensors, notwithstanding some books devoted to the various kind of chemical sensors have recently been published. The second reason was the need of introducing the basic topics of gas detection mechanisms to a growing number of researchers active in research and development laboratories of industries and uni versities. The field of chemical sensors is indeed in fast and consistent growth, as it is proved by the increased number of participants to the congresses that were recently held on this subject, namely the Third Meeting on Chemical Sensors (September 24 - 26, 1990, Cleveland), Transducers' 91 (June 24 - 27, 1991, S. Francisco) and EUROSENSORS V (September 30 - October 3, 1991, Rome). Therefore, this book is mainly intended as a reference text for researchers with a MS degree in physics, chemistry and electrical engineering; it reports the last progresses in the R. & D. and in the technology of gas sensors. I choose to deal specifically with the topic of gas sensors because these devices show a very large number of applications in the domestic and industrial field and they are characterized by a great effort of research and development.

This volume represents a collection of lectures delivered by outstanding specialists in the fields of biophysics and of related scientific disciplines th during the 7 International Summer School on Biophysics held in Rovinj, Croatia from 14 to 25 September 2000 under the title "Super molecular Structure and Function ." This scientific-educational event was organized by the Ruder Boskovic Institute ofZagreb, Croatia with substantial material and intellectual support of a number of national and international institutions including the Croatian Biophysical Society (CBS), the International Union of Pure and Applied Biophysics (IUPAB), the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB) and the UNESCO Venice Office - Regional Office for Science and Technology for Europe (UVO-ROSTE). The seventh edition of the series of International Summer Schools on Biophysics, which was started in 198I, attracted more than 120 young researchers and post-graduate students coming from 27 countries of Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America. Twenty-five outstanding experts in pure and applied biophysics presented the most advanced knowledge ofthis very interdisciplinary area of science during their lectures and round tables. It was commonly acknowledge that the Summer School achieved great success and fully reached its objectives. The success of the Rovinj Summer School was also due to the constantly growing attention being paid by scientific communities to younger generations of scientists, thanks also to the major outcomes of the World Conference on Science "Science for the Twenty-first Century: A New Commitment" held by UNESCO and ICSU in Budapest, Hungary in June 1999.

R.N.IBBETT This book provides a source of information on all major aspects of NMR spectroscopy of synthetic polymers. It represents a deliberate attempt to pull together the numerous strands of the subject in a single comprehensive volume, designed to be readable at every scientific level. It is intended that the book will be of use to the vast majority of polymer scientists and NMR spec troscopists alike. Readers new to NMR will find extensive information within the book on the available techniques, allowing full exploration of the many polymer science applications. Readers already established within a branch of NMR will find the book an excellent guide to the practical study of polymers and the inter pretation of experimental data. Readers who have specialised in polymer NMR will find the book a valuable dictionary of proven methodologies, as well as a guide to the very latest developments in the subject. Workers from all of the main branches of polymer NMR have been invited to contribute. Each chapter therefore contains information relating to a parti cular investigative topic, indentified mainly on the basis of technique. The book is loosely divided between solution and solid-state domains, although the numerous interconnections confirm that these two domains are parts of the same continuum. Basic principles are explained within each chapter, combined with discussions of experimental theory and applications. Examples of polymer investigations are covered generously and in many chapters there are discussions of the most recent theoretical and experimental developments."

The 2nd completely revised edition of the directory Who's Who in Food Chemistry - Europe comprises carefully checked and evaluated information on more than 750 European food scientists, including complete addresses, telephone and fax numbers, fields of expertise, research topics as well as consulting activities. Private, governmental and official laboratories for food control are also included. Exhaustive indexes allow easy access to all entries. The increasing demand for internationally approved professionals in all fields of food science makes this volume an invaluable source of information for the food industry, R + D institutions, consultants, private laboratories and university departments seeking for cooperation and service partners or consultancy.