What do blue things have in common? Or electrons? Or planets? Distinct things appear to share properties; but what are properties and what is the best philosophical account of them? A Critical Introduction to Properties introduces different ontological accounts of properties, exploring how their formulation is shaped by the explanatory demands placed upon them. This accessible introduction begins with a discussion of universals, tropes, sets and resemblance classes, the major objections to them and their responses, providing readers with a firm grasp on the competing ontological accounts of what (if anything) grounds similarity and difference. It then explores issues concerning the formulation and justification of property theories such as: how many properties are there? Should we accept a sparse ontology of properties, or an abundant one? Can we make a distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic properties? Do properties have their causal roles necessarily? What is the relationship between properties and other metaphysical phenomena such as causality, laws and modality? These questions get to the heart of why a coherent theory of properties is so important to metaphysics, and to philosophy more generally. By concluding with the question of the ontological status of properties, the reader is introduced to some Carnapian and contemporary themes about the content and methodology of metaphysics. For students looking for an accessible resource and a more comprehensive understanding of contemporary metaphysics, A Critical Introduction to Properties is a valuable starting point.

The most well-known of Nietzsche's works, Thus Spake Zarathustra spells out a philosophy where God is dead and is replaced by the "Superman", a human of incredible power that rules over humanity. A series of discourses also explains how life should be lived out and what things should be important in all our lives. This work, although controversial, has impacted our society in many ways, often without us even knowing it.

In nine new essays, distinguished philosophers of science take on outstanding philosophical issues that arise in the exploration of the foundations of contemporary, especially physical scientific theories. In the first part of the book issues of scientific method are explored. What are we asking when we pose scientific "why?" questions? How does probability play a role in answering such questions? What are scientific laws of nature? How can we understand what abstract theories are telling us about the world? What is the structure of the theories we use to explain the observable phenomena? Finally, how do theories evolve over time and what consequence do such changes have for our intuition that science is seeking the truth?
In the second part of the volume, foundational issues are explored in a number of crucial physical theories. What do our best available theories tell us about space and time? When we apply quantum theory to fields or other systems with infinite degrees of freedom, what new foundational puzzles appear and how might a theory of interpretation deal with them? Finally, what are the crucial foundational issues in statistical mechanics, where probabilities are applied to explain macroscopic thermal phenomena?

J. S. MILLS PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENTIFIC METHOD The Hafner Library of Classics Number Twelve OSKAR PIEST Editor in Chief EDITORIAL ADVISORY BOARD CURT J. DUCASSE Professor of Philosophy, Brown University CLARENCE H. FAUST Dean of the Humanities and Sciences Stanford University ROBERT M. MACIVER Professor of Political Science, Columbia University ROSCOE POUND University Professor, Emeritus Formerly Dean of the Law School of Harvard University HERBERT W. SCHNEIDER Professor of Philosophy, Columbia University John Stuart Mills Philosophy of Scientific Method Edited with an Introduction by ERNEST NAGEL Professor of Philosophy, Columbia University 1950 HAFNER PUBLISHING COMPANY NEW YORK CONTENTS PAGE EDITORS INTRODUCTION xv NOTE ON THE TEXT xlix SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 1 A SYSTEM OF LOGIC PREFACE 3 INTRODUCTION 1. Is logic the art and science of reasoning 2 . . . 7 2. Logic is concerned with inferences, not with intuitive truths 4, abridged 8 3. Relation of logic to the other sciences 5 . . . 11 BOOK I OF NAMES AND PROPOSITIONS CHAPTER I. OF THE NECESSITY OF COMMENCING WITH AN ANALYSIS OF LANGUAGE 1. Theory of names, why a necessary part of logic . 13 2. First step in the analysis of propositions . . 15 II. OF NAMES 1. Names are names of things, not of our ideas . 16 2. Words which are not names, but parts of names . 17 3. General and singular names 20 4. Concrete and abstract 22 5. Connotative and non-connotative abridged . 24 III. OF THE THINGS DENOTED BY NAMES 1. Necessity of an enumeration of namable things. The categories of Aristotle abridged . . 35 2. Feelings, or states of consciousness 3 . . 35 3. Feelings must be distinguished from their physical antecedents. Perceptions, what 4 . . 374. Volitions and actions, what 5 . . . . 40 5. Substance and attribute 6 40 VI CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE 6. Body 7 42 7. Mind 8 48 8. Qualities 9 49 9. Relations 10 52 10. Resemblance 11 55 11. Quantity 12 58 12. All attributes of bodies are grounded on states of consciousness 13 59 13. So also all attributes of mind 14 ... 60 14. Recapitulation 15 61 IV. OF THE IMPORT OF PROPOSITIONS CH. V 1. Doctrine that a proposition is the expression of a relation between two ideas 64 2. that it consists in referring something to, or excluding something from, a class 3, abridged 67 3. What it really is 4 71 4. It asserts or denies a sequence, a co-existence, a simple existence, a causation 5, abridged . 73 5. or a resemblance 6, abridged .... 76 6. Propositions of which the terms are abstract 7 . 78 V. OF PROPOSITIONS MERELY VERBAL CH. VI 1. All essential propositions are identical propositions 2 82 2. Individuals have no essences 3 . . . . 86 3. Real propositions, how distinguished from verbal 4 87 4. Two modes of representing the import of a real proposition 5 88 VI. OF THE NATURE OF CLASSIFICATION AND THE FIVE PREDICABLES CH. VII 1. Classification, how connected with naming . . 90 2. Kinds have a real existence in nature 4, abridged 91 VII. OF DEFINITION CH. VIII 1. A definition, what abridged 96 2. Every name can be defined whose meaning is sus ceptible of analysis 97 3. How distinguished from descriptions 4, abridged 100 CONTENTS Vll CHAPTER PAGE 4. What are called definitions of things are defini tions of names with an implied assumption of the existence of things corresponding to them 5, abridged 102 5. Definitions, though of names only, must be grounded on knowledge of the corresponding things7, abridged 106 BOOK II OF REASONING I. OF INFERENCE, OR REASONING, IN GENERAL 1. Retrospect of the preceding book abridged . . 109 2. Inferences improperly so called abridged . .110 II. OF RATIOCINATION, OR SYLLOGISM 1. Analysis of the syllogism abridged . . . Ill 2. The dictum de omni not the foundation of reason ing, but a mere identical proposition . .112 3. What is the really fundamental axiom of ratiocina tion 116 4. The other form of the axiom 118 III. OF THE FUNCTIONS AND LOGICAL VALUE OF THE SYLLOGISM 1. Is the syllogism a petitio prindpiif . . ...

This work represents a guided tour to the interdisciplinary, integrated study of time. Through twenty-two connected essays, selected from the author's extensive writings, "Time and Time Again" advances new insights into understanding the nature of time seen through philosophy, the arts and letters, the sciences of matter, life, mind and society. Traditionally, attitudes to future, past, and present remained distinct for different cultures. But upon the globalizing earth, all cultural regions are now in instant by instant communication. There is a consequent turmoil about individual and collective identities and about value judgments, in all of which attitudes to time play crucial roles. The book explores this turmoil and, through its references, it also serves as a guide to the broadly spread literature about time.

Peirce's Scientific Metaphysics is the first book devoted to understanding Charles Sanders Peirce's (1839-1914) metaphysics from the perspective of the scientific questions that motivated his thinking. Deftly situating Peirce's often original and pathbreaking ideas within their appropriate historical and scientific contexts, Reynolds traces his reliance upon the law of large numbers, which illustrated for Peirce the emergence of a stable order and regularity from a multitude of chance events, throughout his writings on late nineteenth-century physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and cosmology. Along the way, Peirce's vision of an indeterministic and evolutionary cosmology is contrasted with the thought of other important late nineteenth-century scientists and philosophers, such as James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin), Herbert Spencer, Charles Darwin, and Ernst Haeckel. While offering a detailed account of the scientific ideas and theories essential for understanding Peirce's metaphysical system (e.g., the irreversibility of time and the reversibility of physical laws, the statistical law of large numbers), this book is written in a manner accessible to the non-specialist. This will make it especially attractive to students of Peirce's philosophy who lack familiarity with the scientific and mathematical ideas that are so central to his thought. Those with an interest in the history and philosophy of science, especially concerning the application of statistical and probabilistic thinking to physics, chemistry, biology, psychology, and cosmology, will find this discussion of Peirce's philosophy invaluable.

Space, Time, Matter, and Form collects ten of David Bostock's essays on themes from Aristotle's Physics, four of them published here for the first time. The first five papers look at issues raised in the first two books of the Physics, centred on notions of matter and form, and the idea of substance as what persists through change. They also range over other of Aristotle's scientific works, such as his biology and psychology and the account of change in his De Generatione et Corruptione. The volume's remaining essays examine themes in later books of the Physics, including infinity, place, time, and continuity. Bostock argues that Aristotle's views on these topics are of real interest in their own right, independent of his notions of substance, form, and matter; they also raise some pressing problems of interpretation, which these essays seek to resolve.

We are still looking for a satisfactory definition of what makes an individual being a human individual. The understanding of human beings in terms of organism does not seem to be satisfactory, because of its reductionistic flavor. It satisfies our need for autonomy and benefits our lives thanks to its medical applications, but it disappoints our needs for conscious and free, self-determination. For similar reasons, i.e. because of its anti-libertarian tone, an organicistic understanding of the relationship between individual and society has also been rejected, although no truly satisfactory alternative for harmonizing individual and social wellness has been put forth. Thus, a reassessment of the very concepts of individual and organism is needed. In this book, the authors present a specific line of thought which started with Leibniz' concept of monad in 17th century, continued through Kant and Hegel, and as a result reached the first Eastern country to attempt to assimilate, as well as confront, with Western philosophy and sciences, i.e. Japan. The line of thought we are tracing has gone on to become one the main voices in current debates in the philosophy of biology, as well as philosophical anthropology, and social philosophy. As a whole, the volume offers a both historical, and systematic account of one specific understanding of individuals and their environment, which tries to put together its natural embedding, as well as its dialectical nature. Such a historical, systematic map will also allow to better evaluate how life sciences impact our view of our individual lives, of human activities, of institutions, politics, and, finally, of humankind in general.

This volume of articles (most published, some new) is a follow-up to the late Wesley C. Salmon's widely read collection Causality And Explanation (OUP 1998). It contains both published and unpublished articles, and focuses on two related areas of inquiry: First, is science a rational enterprise? Secondly, does science yield objective information about our world, even the aspects that we cannot observe directly? Salmon's own take is that objective knowledge of the world is possible, and his work in these articles centers around proving that this can be so. Salmon's influential standing in the field ensures that this volume will be of interest to both undergraduates and professional philosophers, primarily in the philosophy of science.

Physical Relativity explores the nature of the distinction at the heart of Einstein's 1905 formulation of his special theory of relativity: that between kinematics and dynamics. Einstein himself became increasingly uncomfortable with this distinction, and with the limitations of what he called the 'principle theory' approach inspired by the logic of thermodynamics. A handful of physicists and philosophers have over the last century likewise expressed doubts about Einstein's treatment of the relativistic behaviour of rigid bodies and clocks in motion in the kinematical part of his great paper, and suggested that the dynamical understanding of length contraction and time dilation intimated by the immediate precursors of Einstein is more fundamental. Harvey Brown both examines and extends these arguments (which support a more 'constructive' approach to relativistic effects in Einstein's terminology), after giving a careful analysis of key features of the pre-history of relativity theory. He argues furthermore that the geometrization of the theory by Minkowski in 1908 brought illumination, but not a causal explanation of relativistic effects. Finally, Brown tries to show that the dynamical interpretation of special relativity defended in the book is consistent with the role this theory must play as a limiting case of Einstein's 1915 theory of gravity: the general theory of relativity. Appearing in the centennial year of Einstein's celebrated paper on special relativity, Physical Relativity is an unusual, critical examination of the way Einstein formulated his theory. It also examines in detail certain specific historical and conceptual issues that have long given rise to debate in both special and general relativity theory, such as the conventionality of simultaneity, the principle of general covariance, and the consistency or otherwise of the special theory with quantum mechanics. Harvey Brown' s new interpretation of relativity theory will interest anyone working on these central topics in modern physics.

This is a reader's guide to the most important and widely read work in the history and philosophy of science.Thomas Kuhn's "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions" is arguably one of the most influential books of the twentieth century and a key text in the philosophy and history of science. Kuhn's most important work is a hugely exciting, yet challenging, piece of philosophical writing.In "Kuhn's The Structure of Scientific Revolutions: A Reader's Guide", John Preston offers a clear and thorough account of this key philosophical work. The book offers a detailed review of the key themes and a lucid commentary that will enable readers to rapidly navigate the text. Geared towards the specific requirements of students who need to reach a sound understanding of the text as a whole, the guide explores the complex and important ideas inherent in the text and provides a cogent survey of the reception and influence of Kuhn's work. This is the ideal companion to study of this most influential of texts."Continuum Reader's Guides" are clear, concise and accessible introductions to key texts in literature and philosophy. Each book explores the themes, context, criticism and influence of key works, providing a practical introduction to close reading, guiding students towards a thorough understanding of the text. They provide an essential, up-to-date resource, ideal for undergraduate students.

This book makes available for the first time an English translation of William of Ockham's work on Aristotle's Posterior Analytics, which contains his theory of scientific demonstration and philosophy of science. John Lee Longeway also includes an extensive commentary and a detailed history of the intellectual background to Ockham's work in the Latin Middle Ages. Longeway puts Ockham into context by providing a scholarly account of the reception and study of the Posterior Analytics in the Latin Middle Ages, with a detailed discussion of Robert Grosseteste, Albert the Great, Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Giles of Rome. In a series of appendices, Longeway includes shorter translations of some important related work by Giles of Rome and John of Cornwall. In his introductory discussion, Longeway examines the exact character of the highest sort of demonstration (demonstratio potissima), the relations of the empirical sciences to mathematics, natural causation and the manner in which natural laws come to be known, the possibility of natural knowledge, our knowledge of God, and the relation of theology to the other sciences. Longeway discusses the way in which scientific epistemology and theory of demonstration corresponds to the metaphysical position of its interpreter, in particular to the Neoplatonism of Grosseteste, the radical Aristotelianism of Giles of Rome and Albert the Great, the more moderate Aristotelianism of Aquinas, and the nominalistic empiricism of Ockham. Throughout the book, Longeway makes a case for Ockham's importance as the founder of empiricism in the West. Demonstration and Scientific Knowledge in William of Ockham will interest philosophers and historians of scienceand logic, as well as those who study medieval philosophy or early modern philosophy.

The purpose of this little book is to give a general idea of a few of the great achievements of our time. Within such a limited space it was impossible to even mention thousands more of the great inventions and triumphs which mark the rushing progress of the world in the present century; therefore, only those subjects have been treated which appeal with more than passing interest to all. For instance, the flying machine is engaging the attention of the old, the young and the middle-aged, and soon the whole world will be on the wing. Radium, "the revealer," is opening the door to possibilities almost beyond human conception. Wireless Telegraphy is crossing thousands of miles of space with invisible feet and making the nations of the earth as one. 'Tis the same with the other subjects, - one and all are of vital, human interest, and are extremely attractive on account of their importance in the civilization of today. Mighty, sublime, wonderful, as have been the achievements of past science, as yet we are but on the verge of the continents of discovery. Where is the wizard who can tell what lies in the womb of time? Just as our conceptions of many things have been revolutionized in the past, those which we hold to-day of the cosmic processes may have to be remodeled in the future.

Religio Medici, the timeless book of personal contemplations by renowned polymath Sir Thomas Browne, is presented here complete. Written by Browne during the 1640s as a means of profiling his psyche in a spiritual testament to the divine, Religio Medici - in English, Religion of a Doctor - was received with acclaim in England and continental Europe. The text is structured around three key virtues: the first part is occupied with the attributes of Faith and Hope; while the second part is concerned with Charity. Throughout, Browne maintains a recognisable style and tone, writing with frankness, clarity and conviction. For its profundity and explanatory wisdom, scholars of the 17th century lavished Religio Medici with praise, and Browne became famous. The book enjoyed a revival in the 19th century, as the characterful idiosyncrasies of Browne found appreciation among artists and intellectuals of that era. Today, the text remains a favourite for its accessible, thought-provoking merits.

To the majority of people Einstein's theory is a complete mystery. Their attitude towards Einstein is like that of Mark Twain towards the writer of a work on mathematics: here was a man who had written an entire book of which Mark could not understand a single sentence. Einstein, therefore, is great in the public eye partly because he has made revolutionary discoveries which cannot be translated into the common tongue. We stand in proper awe of a man whose thoughts move on heights far beyond our range, whose achievements can be measured only by the few who are able to follow his reasoning and challenge his conclusions. There is, however, another side to his personality. It is revealed in the addresses, letters, and occasional writings brought together in this book. These fragments form a mosaic portrait of Einstein the man. Each one is, in a sense, complete in itself; it presents his views on some aspect of progress, education, peace, war, liberty, or other problems of universal interest. Their combined effect is to demonstrate that the Einstein we can all understand is no less great than the Einstein we take on trust.

This monograph presents new ideas in nomic truth approximation. It features original and revised papers from a (formal) philosopher of science who has studied the concept for more than 35 years. Over the course of time, the author's initial ideas evolved. He discovered a way to generalize his first theory of nomic truth approximation, viz. by dropping an unnecessarily strong assumption. In particular, he first believed to have to assume that theories were maximally specific in the sense that they did not only exclude certain conceptual possibilities, but also that all non-excluded possibilities were in fact claimed to be nomically possible. Now, he argues that the exclusion claim alone, or for that matter the inclusion claim alone, is sufficient to motivate the formal definition of being closer to the nomic truth. The papers collected here detail this generalized view of nomic truthlikeness or verisimilitude. Besides this, the book presents, in adapted form, the relation with several other topics, such as, domain revision, aesthetic progress, abduction, inference to the best explanation, pragmatic aspects, probabilistic methods, belief revision and epistemological positions, notably constructive realism. Overall, the volume presents profound insight into nomic truth approximation. This idea seeks to determine how one theory can be closer to, or more similar to, the truth about what is nomically, e.g. physically, chemically, biologically, possible than another theory. As a result, it represents the ultimate goal of theory oriented empirical science. Theo Kuipers is the author of Studies in Inductive Probability and Rational Expectation (1978), From Instrumentalism to Constructive Realism (2000) and Structures in Science (2001). He is the volume-editor of the Handbook on General Philosophy of Science (2007). In 2005 there appeared two volumes of Essays in Debate with Theo Kuipers, entitled Confirmation, Empirical Progress, and Truth Approximation and Cognitive Structures in Scientific Inquiry.

Scientific communication (Sci-Com) is a part of information science and the sociology of science that studies researchers' use of formal and informal information channels as well as their communicative roles. It also covers the utilization of the formal publication system and similar issues. Within the scientific community, much attention has focused on improving communications between scientists, policymakers, and the public. Sci-Com is an important area of research in meeting these needs. The use of communication methods to portray information clearly, concisely, and effectively, whether that be through presentations, writing, or other approaches, is an essential area of interest within the community. Improving Scientific Communication for Lifelong Learners seeks to improve scientific writing and speaking skills for lifelong learning researchers by developing an adaptive and responsive open and distance application according to universal design principles. The book will focus on the efforts that are centered on improving the content, substantiality, accessibility, and delivery of scientific communications, and to convey clear information to an audience, so its members can understand, use, and build on the information portrayed. The chapters highlight specific areas such as design thinking, distance learning, educational technologies, student success and motivation, and the design of educational environments and learning communities. This book is a valuable reference tool for teachers, academics, communication specialists, students, researchers, developers, and R&D professionals from various fields such as distance learning, online learning, accreditation, qualitative and quantitative research, transhumanism and learning, computer engineering, sociology, and more.

Provides an overview of the complex history of the interaction of science and religion. Can science and religious belief co-exist? Many people - including many practicing scientists - insist that one can simultaneously follow the principles of the scientific method and believe in a particular spiritual tradition. But throughout history there have been people for whom science challenges the very validity of religious belief. Whether called atheists, agnostics, skeptics, or infidels, these individuals use the naturalism of modern science to deny the existence of any supernatural power. This book chronicles, in a balanced and accessible way, the long history of the battle between adherents of religious doctrines and the nonbelievers who adhere to the naturalism of modern science. Science and Nonbelief provides a nontechnical introduction to the leading questions that concern science and religion today: what place does evolution hold in the arguments of nonbelievers?; what does modern physics tell us about the place of humanity in the natural world?; how do modern neurosciences challenge traditional beliefs about mind and matter?; what can scientific research about religion tell us and psychics? The volume also addresses the political context of debates over science and nonbelief, and questions about the nature of morality. It includes a selection of provocative primary source documents that illustrate the complexity and varieties of nonbelief. Part of the Greenwood Guides to Science and Religion series, this book includes a discussion of scientific attitudes to pseudo-science and the paranormal. A primary source section illustrates views on the relationship between science and belief. It adopts a balanced approach to the questions raised.

Over the last few centuries, science has usurped domains of knowledge that were once the province of religion. At the same time, however, both science and religion have enforced strict boundaries throughout. Science can describe the world to us, but it cannot tell us about meaning or values. This is a compelling case for breaching this barrier - in effect, for a reunification of science and religion.