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Books > Business & Economics > Business & management > Management & management techniques > Organizational theory & behaviour

Introduction to Digital Economics - Foundations, Business Models and Case Studies (Hardcover, 2nd ed. 2021): Harald Overby, Jan... Introduction to Digital Economics - Foundations, Business Models and Case Studies (Hardcover, 2nd ed. 2021)
Harald Overby, Jan Arild Audestad
R1,068 Discovery Miles 10 680 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Innovations and developments in technology have laid the foundations for an economy based on digital goods and services-the digital economy. This book invites students and practitioners, to take an in-depth look at the impact that technological innovations such as social media, cryptocurrencies, crowdsourcing, and even online gaming is having on today's business landscape. Learn about the various business models available for the digital economy, including the business models used by Bitcoin, Spotify, Wikipedia, World of Warcraft, Facebook, and Airbnb. This book details the evolution of contemporary economics within the digital stratosphere and highlights the complex ecosystem that makes up the field of digital economics. The foundational text with case studies is also peppered with anecdotes on the various technological innovations which have shaped markets throughout history. The authors provide several models and tools that are essential for analysis, as well as activities that will allow the reader to reflect, analyze, and apply the knowledge and tools presented in each chapter. Introduction to Digital Economics is a definitive guide to the complexities and nuances of this burgeoning and fascinating field of study.

Creating an LGBT+ Inclusive Workplace - The Practical Resource Guide for Business Leaders (Paperback): Kryss Shane Creating an LGBT+ Inclusive Workplace - The Practical Resource Guide for Business Leaders (Paperback)
Kryss Shane
R1,065 Discovery Miles 10 650 Ships in 9 - 17 working days

Setting out best practices and professional guidance for creating LGBT+ inclusive workplaces, this approachable and easy to follow book guides current and future leaders of all industries toward appropriate and proven ways to create safer working environments, update company policies, enhance continuing education and training, and better support LGBT+ people in the workplace. Featuring real-life situations and scenarios, a glossary, and further resources, Creating an LGBT+ Inclusive Workplace enables professionals in all aspects of professional roles to integrate foundational concepts into their everyday interactions with staff at all levels as well as within the community to create an overall workplace culture that nurtures a welcoming, inclusive, and affirming environment for all. This book includes postcards from PostSecret as its foreword and more than a dozen exclusive interviews from the world's top leaders in a variety of industries with world-renowned reputations. Enabling professionals in a variety of business roles to create an overall workplace culture that nurtures a welcoming, inclusive, and affirming environment for all, this book is an essential resource for independent readers, department teams, and entire corporations.

Strategies and Organizations in Transition (Hardcover): Craig S. Galbraith Strategies and Organizations in Transition (Hardcover)
Craig S. Galbraith
R3,686 Discovery Miles 36 860 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

The world of business has always been considered quick and unforgiving, but it is certainly getting even quicker and less forgiving as we enter the new "millennium." New problems have given rise to new approaches while some, but not all, old problems yield new solutions. The theme of this volume "Strategies and organizations in Transition" reflects a world in which variety, change, and unique perspectives are interwoven into the fabric of 21st-century business. The volume articles presented here represent a combination of empirical business research and practical business insight covering a wide range of current and future business issues, with specific emphasis upon the changing dynamics. Articles of particular interest such as Neil Kay's examination of cooperative strategies from a transaction cost theoretical basis, Srinivasan and Brush's examination of modern vertical relationships, and Ryman and Fryxell's analysis of the impact of technology on the health care system are all likely to have implications well beyond the pages of this volume. Equally, "Strategies and Organizations in Transition" also contains Bennett and Stamper's groundbreaking exploration of the complex area of discretionary workplace behaviour and Curt Stiles' exploration of product diversity and specialization in industry. With a more academic focus, Dean and Bamford provide a conceptual examination and interpretation of various economic disequilibrium theories of classical economists as a foundation for extending entrepreneurial research, while Ling, Lubatkin and Schulze explore the relationship between altruism and the governance of family firms. The volume also attempts to further extend the realm of traditional business concerns by its inclusion of two papers that underscore how traditional business and Government constraints impact those wishing to engage in space related entrepreneurial activity.

Emotionalizing Organizations and Organizing Emotions (Hardcover): B. Sieben Emotionalizing Organizations and Organizing Emotions (Hardcover)
B. Sieben; A...sa Wettergren
R3,796 Discovery Miles 37 960 Ships in 18 - 22 working days

Delivers a strong contribution to the field of research on emotions in organizations offering original pieces of research. Uniting scholars from organization and management research and sociology, it conveys trans-disciplinary insights into the multidimensional 'nature' of emotion and its appearance in organizational structures and processes.

Effective Classroom Teamwork - Support or Intrusion? (Hardcover): Gary Thomas Effective Classroom Teamwork - Support or Intrusion? (Hardcover)
Gary Thomas
R1,595 Discovery Miles 15 950 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

The nature of classroom practice is undergoing change as more and more adults are being brought into classrooms in response to such trends as parental involvement and the integration of children with special educational needs. The parents, teachers, ancillary staff and support workers comprising these new groups probably fail to recognize themselves as teams, but nonetheless they are characterized by the same stresses which mark teamwork in any other setting. "Effective Classroom Teamwork" is a guide to working together as an effective team, designed to show that the new teams can function with great success if team members recognize that they are part of a team, and employ strategies to minimize chances of failure. Gary Thomas identifies key areas of concern, including poor communication, status barriers and inadequate role definition, and offers guidelines for dealing with these stresses and tensions in teamwork. This book should be of interest to undergraduates and academics, those involved in classroom management, and heads and teachers in schools.

Mapping Motivation - Unlocking the Key to Employee Energy and Engagement (Paperback): James Sale Mapping Motivation - Unlocking the Key to Employee Energy and Engagement (Paperback)
James Sale
R1,070 Discovery Miles 10 700 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Ever wondered what motivation is, and why organizations do not and cannot - until now - measure it? James Sale tackles the question of what motivation is, why we need it and what happens when we don't have it. He defines and measures motivation from an individual, team and, most critically, organizational or workplace point of view and he introduces the reader to the core concepts of how it relates to fundamental issues such as performance and productivity, and its role in a number of key management functions: team building, performance appraisal, leadership development, engagement and change management. Motivation is a core aspect of all people development initiatives and programmes - if we wish them to succeed. Based on over ten years of research into motivation and performance, James created Motivational Maps, the first and only accurate diagnostic tool that describes, measures, monitors and maximizes motivation and performance through an easy, simple to use, online questionnaire that takes only 10 minutes to complete, and which readers have access to. Mapping Motivation, therefore, is the definitive book on motivation, its language and metrics, written by its creator are full of knowledge, insight and practical tips; this will appeal to leaders, managers, HR specialists, trainers, coaches, consultants and visionaries around the world, who wish to engage with people development and productivity in a new, dynamic way.

Turn The Ship Around! - A True Story of Turning Followers into Leaders (Paperback): L. David Marquet Turn The Ship Around! - A True Story of Turning Followers into Leaders (Paperback)
L. David Marquet; Foreword by Stephen R. Covey 1
R312 R282 Discovery Miles 2 820 Save R30 (10%) Ships in 9 - 17 working days

'David Marquet is the kind of leader who comes around only once in a generation... his ideas and lessons are invaluable' - Simon Sinek, author of Start With Why ---------- Leadership lessons from a nuclear submarine captain to help you transform how you work. Captain David Marquet was used to giving orders. In the high-stress environment of the USS Santa Fe, a nuclear-powered submarine, it was crucial his men did their job well. But the ship was dogged by poor morale, poor performance and the worst retention in the fleet. One day, Marquet unknowingly gave an impossible order, and his crew tried to follow it anyway. He realized he was leading in a culture of followers, and they were all in danger unless they fundamentally changed the way they did things. Marquet took matters into his own hands and pushed for leadership at every level. Before long, his crew became fully engaged and the Santa Fe skyrocketed from worst to first in the fleet. No matter your industry or position, by reading Marquet's business classic, you can learn how to create a workplace where everyone takes responsibility for their actions, people are healthier and happier - and everyone is a leader.

From Industry 4.0 to Quality 4.0 - An Innovative TQM Guide for Sustainable Digital Age Businesses (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2022):... From Industry 4.0 to Quality 4.0 - An Innovative TQM Guide for Sustainable Digital Age Businesses (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2022)
Timothy Adesanya Ibidapo
R3,247 Discovery Miles 32 470 Ships in 18 - 22 working days

This book describes the development of quality over various stages, from product inspection, through quality control to the present ISO 9000 systems. It also highlights the advantages of the quality management system (QMS) standards and the need for certification by organizations and enterprises/firms interested in taking advantage of the various benefits of these standards to improve their systems and aid their survival in a globally competitive market. The author provides simplified information to enable even those hearing the word ''quality'' for the first time to be able to appreciate and understand the various quality management philosophies irrespective of their background and position.

Grace Leadership - A Biblical Perspective of Compassion in Management (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2022): Russell L. Huizing Grace Leadership - A Biblical Perspective of Compassion in Management (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2022)
Russell L. Huizing
R3,984 Discovery Miles 39 840 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Drawing upon both Jewish and Christian scriptures, this book lays a groundwork for understanding how grace is a critical element of leadership and followership studies. This volume, divided into three sections, begins by defining the concept of grace leadership, using biblical examples. Part two discusses how grace leadership develops while the last part of the book offers contemporary examples of leaders displaying grace to their employees. With cases from the military as well as organizational perspectives, this edited collection adds a new wrinkle to the leadership literature and will appeal to scholars in HRM and organizational studies.

The Growth of the Firm - The Legacy of Edith Penrose (Hardcover, New): Christos Pitelis The Growth of the Firm - The Legacy of Edith Penrose (Hardcover, New)
Christos Pitelis
R5,750 Discovery Miles 57 500 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Edith Penrose has been one of the most significant economists of the second part of the twentieth century. Her contribution to the theory of the firm has reinvented and productively developed the classical tradition in economics, and informed the currently dominant, knowledge-based theory of the firm. This volume builds on a special issue of Contributions to Political Economy that celebrated forty years since Penrose's classic The Theory of the Growth of the Firm. It includes fifteen chapters by leading contributors on the aforementioned aspects of Penrose's work.

The Genetics of Political Behavior - How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Ideology (Paperback): Michael Ryan The Genetics of Political Behavior - How Evolutionary Psychology Explains Ideology (Paperback)
Michael Ryan
R1,408 Discovery Miles 14 080 Ships in 9 - 17 working days

* Takes a unique perspective by examining political ideology and behaviour via evolutionary psychology and genetics to explain conservative and liberal differences * Fascinating reading for students and academics in psychology, the social sciences, and humanities, as well as general readers interested in political behavior * Explores the potential future of political behavior and participation in relation to possible consequences of evolution and genetics

Interpersonal Skills for Group Collaboration - Creating High-Performance Teams in the Classroom and the Workplace (Hardcover):... Interpersonal Skills for Group Collaboration - Creating High-Performance Teams in the Classroom and the Workplace (Hardcover)
Tammy Rice-Bailey, Felicia Chong
R3,695 Discovery Miles 36 950 Ships in 9 - 17 working days

This lively and engaging text introduces readers to the core interpersonal and organizational skills needed to effectively collaborate on group projects in the classroom and the workplace. Group projects are critical in preparing students for the realities of today's workplace, but many college students despise group work-often because they have not been prepared with the necessary skills to effectively collaborate. This guide teaches core collaboration skills such as active listening, interviewing, empathy, and conflict resolution. It examines the research and theory behind these skills, and provides tangible ways to practice these skills both alone and in groups. This guide can be used a supplementary text for any courses involving group projects, and will also be of interest to professionals in communication, business, and many other fields.

The M&A Solution - A Values-Based Approach to Integrate Companies (Hardcover): Don Scales The M&A Solution - A Values-Based Approach to Integrate Companies (Hardcover)
Don Scales
R594 R548 Discovery Miles 5 480 Save R46 (8%) Ships in 18 - 22 working days
Social Functions of Emotion and Talking About Emotion at Work (Hardcover): Dirk Lindebaum, Deanna Geddes, Peter J. Jordan Social Functions of Emotion and Talking About Emotion at Work (Hardcover)
Dirk Lindebaum, Deanna Geddes, Peter J. Jordan
R3,725 Discovery Miles 37 250 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Despite how much we know about emotion, Social Functions of Emotion and Talking About Emotion at Work uniquely examines the utility of emotion in organizations against the ways in which both individuals and groups talk about them. Drawing on psychological and sociological research, this book provides groundbreaking insights for understanding how emotions are used in the workplace. Bringing together contributions from leading emotion researchers, this book features chapters focusing on 10 emotions, ranging from awe to shame. Through its exploration of the ways each emotion functions in relation to how we talk about them, this book injects fresh theoretical and practical momentum into how our discussions of workplace emotion can affect how emotional events are appraised over time and place. This, in turn influences the causes, expressions, and consequences of emotions in the workplace. With its novel approach, this book will be an invaluable tool for academics researching emotion, as well as postgraduate students working in the social sciences seeking reference material on emotion. HR managers and general readers seeking greater insight into emotions at work will also find this book to be a useful tool. Contributors include: N.M. Ashkanasy, R.A. Baron, S. Connelly, M. Dasborough, C.D. Fisher, D. Geddes, P. Harvey, M.L.A. Hayward, P.J. Jordan, S. Kiffin-Petersen, H.C. Lench, D. Lindebaum, K.E. Moura, K.A. Perez, R.H. Smith, R.K. Smith, P.N. Stearns, A.C. Troth, M.R. Turner, K.L. Tyran, T.S.H. Wingenbach

Projects as Arenas for Renewal and Learning Processes (Hardcover, 1998 ed.): Rolf A. Lundin, Christophe Midler Projects as Arenas for Renewal and Learning Processes (Hardcover, 1998 ed.)
Rolf A. Lundin, Christophe Midler
R4,159 Discovery Miles 41 590 Ships in 18 - 22 working days

There is a growing tendency to organize various aspects of business life by projects, and to set up temporary organizations in a competition where speed and adaptability becomes a major necessity. Organizing by projects is perceived as a good way to ensure action and to stress the importance of getting work done. However, there is a need to balance the stress on action so that learning capabilities are not only retained, but augmented. Projects as Arenas for Renewal and Learning Processes provides examples of how different types of projects function from a learning or renewal perspective, taken from a wide variety of real-life environments in industrial and public organizations. This book illustrates the mistaken habit of assuming too much in the project area: for example, project notions are, in fact, culture-dependent; classical market-oriented contracting business relations do not fit with the learning dimension of projects; and long-term learning on core competencies and product development projects need to be connected. The book is also intended to represent many of the research frontiers in the project field. Enhancing learning capabilities is - or should be - of a mutual concern to researchers and managers alike.

Base of the Pyramid and Business Process Outsourcing Strategies - In the Age of SDGs (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2023): Takabumi... Base of the Pyramid and Business Process Outsourcing Strategies - In the Age of SDGs (Hardcover, 1st ed. 2023)
Takabumi Hayashi, Hiroshi Hoshino, Yoshie Hori
R4,310 Discovery Miles 43 100 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

The major objective of this book is to introduce social business models to face the challenge of social issues in emerging countries. Each chapter clarifies business strategies based on diligent field surveys in developing nations, focusing on Bangladesh and the Philippines, where social issues in the age of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are concentrated. The field surveys enable the effective construction of a sophisticated hybrid value chain by connecting a sustainable business ecosystem of local value chains with global value chains. Joint social business entities formed between local NGOs and foreign companies, multinational corporations with global value chains, among others, appear to be the keystones. In Part I, the case of Grameen Euglena in Bangladesh and that of Sari-Sari stores leveraging micro-financing in the Philippines, along with other interesting cases, are analyzed as effective social business models. Analysis also shows that the IT service industry in emerging countries helps to enlarge formal sectors so as to absorb younger generations into informal sectors. The e-health service business in Bangladesh and the business process outsourcing (BPO) IT service industry in the Philippines are examined in each part of the book. Part II, particularly, shows that IT and the digital technology-based service industry can lead to a new industrial development path in these countries instead of the conventional one based on manufacturing. In other words, digital technology-based service industries, as formal sectors, can absorb working people from informal sectors. As a result, poverty issues which form a key issue in SDGS will be alleviated. This book is highly recommended not only to academicians but also to businesspeople who seek an in-depth and up-to-date overview of new sustainable and inclusive businesses in the age of SDGs.

Knowledge Work in Teams (Hardcover): Michael M. Beyerlein, Susan T. Beyerlein, D.A. Johnson Knowledge Work in Teams (Hardcover)
Michael M. Beyerlein, Susan T. Beyerlein, D.A. Johnson
R3,792 Discovery Miles 37 920 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

This second volume in the series covers such topics as cross-functional teamwork, working in public and learning-in-action, organizing knowledge work systems and varieties of knowledge work experience.

Provocation as Leadership - A Roadmap for Adaptation and Change (Paperback): Maxime Fern, Michael Johnstone Provocation as Leadership - A Roadmap for Adaptation and Change (Paperback)
Maxime Fern, Michael Johnstone
R943 Discovery Miles 9 430 Ships in 9 - 17 working days

Looks at unlocking the most important aspect of change management - to provoke people out of their comfort zones. Presents a wide range of tools, strategies and skillsets to provoke. Written by two leading experts in the field of change management, who have applied their approaches within large multinationals such as Google, as well as governments and SMEs.

Impression Management in the Organization (Hardcover): Robert A. Giacalone, Paul Rosenfeld Impression Management in the Organization (Hardcover)
Robert A. Giacalone, Paul Rosenfeld
R4,248 Discovery Miles 42 480 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Impression management theory has been popular in sociology and social psychology for many years. This volume offers the first comprehensive application of impression management theory to organizational settings.
Researchers and practitioners in organizational settings have recently been using this theory as an explanatory model to focus on the roles and identities that "social actors" utilize in interpersonal situations. The theory of impression management provides a framework for the techniques and strategies people use in order to look good as well as the excuses and justifications they employ to avoid looking bad.

Organizational Behaviour for the Hospitality Industry - Pearson New International Edition (Paperback, Pearson New International... Organizational Behaviour for the Hospitality Industry - Pearson New International Edition (Paperback, Pearson New International Edition)
Florence Berger, Judi Brownell
R2,176 Discovery Miles 21 760 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

For undergraduate and graduate courses in Organizational Behavior and Human Relations Skills in schools of hotel management. Organizational Behavior for the Hospitality Industry is the most recent organisational behaviour text that focuses on the hospitality industry, delving into the concepts that are relevant to students who plan to enter the hospitality industry. Hospitality organisations today must achieve excellence in human relations, and that success starts with quality organisational behaviour. The text is organised into three sections: organisational behavioural essentials, the individual and the organisation, and key management tasks. Additionally, each key topic includes detailed exercises, providing students with the hands-on experience they'll need in order to succeed in the industry.

Elgar Introduction to Theories of Organizational Resilience (Hardcover): Luca Giustiniano, Stewart R. Clegg, Miguel P.e. Cunha,... Elgar Introduction to Theories of Organizational Resilience (Hardcover)
Luca Giustiniano, Stewart R. Clegg, Miguel P.e. Cunha, Armenio Rego
R2,846 Discovery Miles 28 460 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

With organizational environments becoming increasingly unstable, uncertain and equivocal, the concept of resilience has become increasingly significant for management studies and practice. Resilience connotes organizational, team and individual capacities to absorb external shocks and to learn from them, while simultaneously preparing for and responding to external jolts. This book pinpoints the essential aspects of managerial and organizational resilience and offers insights that stimulate critical thinking. As the concept of resilience is essentially made up of contrasting forces, the volume presents some innovative synthetic interpretation that allows a deeper comprehension of the phenomenon and provides managers and policy makers with a solid basis for taking their decisions. This book provides an accessible yet rigorous systematization of individual resilience, team resilience and organizational resilience. Rich with real-life concept illustrations and containing practice-oriented tools, reflection questions and exercises, it shows how resilience can be cultivated across levels of organizational aggregation: individuals, teams, organizations and communities. The authors distinguish individual and collective resilience from related constructs and shed light on the boundaries of resilience and its potential implications for management practice. Elgar Introduction to Theories of Organizational Resilience will serve as a key resource for graduate students and advanced undergraduate students as well as academics and practitioners who are interested in deepening their understanding of resilience.

Free to Fail - Creative Destruction Revisited (Hardcover): Hugh van der Mandele, Arjen C. van Witteloostuijn Free to Fail - Creative Destruction Revisited (Hardcover)
Hugh van der Mandele, Arjen C. van Witteloostuijn
R3,003 Discovery Miles 30 030 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

This challenging book tackles one of the most fundamental questions in economics: Why are commercial organizations more efficient than organizations in the public domain? It is generally accepted that the traditional answer (the fact that commercial organizations maximize profits) does not necessarily hold true. Finding a solution to this anomaly, as this book attempts to do, should therefore be a prime concern in economics. The authors believe the answer lies in the fact that even in a completely stable environment, all organizations will eventually fail irreparably. Organizations operating in the market are more efficient because, once in decline, they are 'free to fail' and allowed to be disassembled or even replaced. Public organizations that fail are more often than not protected and allowed to continue even though their efficiency is questionable. This fascinating and thought-provoking book will provide a stimulating read for academics and students with an interest in economics, business and management and public policy. Contents: Preface 1. Introduction 2. Key Concepts 3. The Historic Debate 4. Profit Maximization is Only Part of the Answer 5. Organizational Mortality and its Fruits 6. Causes of Organizational Failure 7. Uncontrollability 8. Empirical Evidence 9. The Soft Constraint Syndrome 10. When Left to its Own Devices 11. Necrosis and Apoptosis 12. Why Public Organizations? Appendix: The Dutch Affair or the Destructive Power of Organizational Warfare References Index

The Evolution of the Property Relation - Understanding Paradigms, Debates, and Prospects (Hardcover): A. Davis The Evolution of the Property Relation - Understanding Paradigms, Debates, and Prospects (Hardcover)
A. Davis
R3,324 Discovery Miles 33 240 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Evolution of the Property Relation defines an approach to economics which is centered around the concept of property and explores the historical evolution of the relationship of the individual, private property, and the state, and the distinctive changes wrought by the emergence of the market.

Dealing in Uncertainty - Insurance in the Age of Finance (Hardcover): Arjen van der Heide Dealing in Uncertainty - Insurance in the Age of Finance (Hardcover)
Arjen van der Heide
R2,163 Discovery Miles 21 630 Ships in 10 - 15 working days

Insurance is an important - if still poorly understood - mechanism for dealing with a broad variety of risks associated with modern life. This book conducts an in-depth examination of one of the largest and longest-established private insurance industries in Europe: British life insurance. In doing so, it draws on over 40 oral history interviews to trace how the sector is changed since the 1970s, a period characterised by rampant financialisation and neoliberalisation. Combining insights from science and technology studies and economic sociology, this is an unprecedented study of the evolution of insurance practices and an invaluable contribution to our understanding of financial capitalism.

The Transnational Activities of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Hardcover, 1998 ed.): Masataka Fujita The Transnational Activities of Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises (Hardcover, 1998 ed.)
Masataka Fujita
R2,799 Discovery Miles 27 990 Ships in 18 - 22 working days

measure of the rate of innovation --research-and-development (R&D) expenditure per employee compared to new patents received per employee -- does not adequately capture a unique feature of SMEs, namely that owners and managers are often themselves innovators. For example, in Japan 52 per cent of SMEs' innovations reported in 1986 were created by employers, whereas in large firms 72 per cent of innovations were created by research technicians. Nevertheless, patchy evidence from Germany, the United Kingdom and the United States indicates that SMEs at least hold their own in terms of innovation compared to large firms. Perhaps most significantly, a recent study indicates that, while the total number of innovations is positively related to R&D expenditures, skilled labour and the degree to which large firms comprise the industry, in innovative industries innovative activity tends to emanate more from SMEs than large firms. This is probably because in industries where large firms dominate, SMEs need to be innovative to survive. There is much information to suggest that in technologies such as micro-electronics, new materials and biotechnology SMEs tend to be in the vanguard of innovation. Small and medium-sized enterprises as exporters. The contribution of SMEs to a national economy from exporting is generally small; for example, in Japan SMEs accounted for only 13 per cent of merchandise exports in 1990.

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